[Annotated] Haenyeo

Haenyeo(lit.^[각주:1] sea women) are female divers in the Korean province of Jeju. Known for their independent spirit^[각주:2], iron will^[각주:3] and determination^[각주:4], the haenyeo are representative of^[각주:5] the semi-matriarchal^[각주:6] family structure of Jeju.

History

Jeju's diving tradition dates back to^[각주:7] 434 A.D. Originally, diving was an exclusively^[각주:8] male profession^[각주:9], with the exception of^[각주:10] women who worked alongside^[각주:11] their husbands. The first female divers in literature does not come until the 17th century when a monograph of^[각주:12] Jeju geography describes them as^[각주:13] jamnyeo (literally^[각주:14] "diving women").

By the 18th century, female divers, at this point commonly^[각주:15] referred to as^[각주:16] haenyeo, outnumbered male divers. Several possible explanations exist for this shift^[각주:17]. For instance, in the 17th century, a significant number of men died at sea due to war or deep-sea fishing accidents, meaning that diving became the work of women. Another explanation is that physiologically^[각주:18], women have more subcutaneous fat^[각주:19] and a higher shivering threshold^[각주:20] than men, making them more equipped to^[각주:21] withstand^[각주:22] cold waters. An 18th-century document records that taxes of dried^[각주:23] abalone were imposed on^[각주:24] ordinary people^[각주:25], forcing many women to dive in cold waters while pregnant.

Whatever the reason, as sea diving became a female-dominated^[각주:26] industry, many of the haenyeo subsequently^[각주:27] replaced their husbands as the primary laborer^[각주:28]. This trend was especially prominent after the Japanese colonized Korea in 1910 and diving became much more lucrative^[각주:29]. Up until this point^[각주:30], much of what the haenyeo harvested was given to the Choson government as tribute^[각주:31]. When the Japanese took over, however, they abolished this tradition^[각주:32], allowing haenyeo to sell their catch^[각주:33] at market and make a profit^[각주:34]. Additionally, Japanese and Korean merchants hired haenyeo to work for them in Japan and on the Korean mainland as wage-laborers, increasing their financial situations^[각주:35] greatly^[각주:36]. On Yeonpyeong-ri, as island near Incheon where many haenyeo worked, their wages, on average, constituted 40 to 48 percent of^[각주:37] a typical family's total income^[각주:38]. The prominent place of^[각주:39] haenyeo in Jeju's economy^[각주:40] and in their individual family units continued long after Japanese colonization. In the early 1960s, for example, haenyeo harvests accounted for 60% of Jeju's fisheries revenue^[각주:41] and 40% of haenyeo husbands remained unemployed.

In Society

Because so many families relied on the haenyeo for the majority of their income, a semi-matriarchal society developed on^[각주:42] Jeju with the haenyeo at the head of the household^[각주:43]. On the tiny islets^[각주:44] off the coast of Jeju, such as Mara Island, where income, this reversal^[각주:45] of gender roles^[각주:46] was taken to the extreme; men would look after the children^[각주:47] and go shopping while the women would bring in money^[각주:48] for the family. Other manifestations of^[각주:49] Jeju's unique society include men paying a dowry^[각주:50] to the family of the bride (a reversal of the custom on the Korean mainland) and families celebrating the birth of girls over the birth of boys.

While certain elements of a matriarchal society surfaced in^[각주:51] Jeju, they were not enough to completely overcome the predominance of^[각주:52] Confucianism^[각주:53]. As a result, beyond the domestic sphere^[각주:54], little else about Jeju society was different than^[각주:55] what existed on the Korean mainland. For example, men filled all political leadership roles^[각주:56] and were the only ones who could perform ancestor-worship ceremonies^[각주:57] and inherit property^[각주:58] and the familial line^[각주:59]. Furthermore, during the era of colonial rule^[각주:60], haenyeo remained peasants^[각주:61], never moving up the chain to^[각주:62] become small-business^[각주:63] owners or managers of seafood manufacturing plants^[각주:64]. Even in the home, most haenyeo remained the primary caregiver^[각주:65] and handled at least half of the domestic chores^[각주:66]. 

Today, things have changed. The haenyeo are celebrated as one of Jeju's most valued treasures. The Korean government shows its appreciation for^[각주:67] the unique contributions of^[각주:68] the haenyeo to Jeju's culture by subsidizing their gear^[각주:69] and granting them exclusive rights to^[각주:70] sell fresh seafood. Furthermore, in March 2014, the government requested the UNESCO to^[각주:71] add haenyeo to its Intangible Cultural Heritage list. 

Inscribed in^[각주:72] 2016 (11.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible^[각주:73] Cultural Heritage of Humanity 

Declining^[각주:74] numbers

Like many other vestiges of the past^[각주:75], the sea-diving industry has fallen victim to^[각주:76] industrialization^[각주:77]. Beginning in the 1960s, the Korean government sought ways to jumpstart the country's economy in^[각주:78] every province. Because Jeju was not a practical place to build factories^[각주:79], the Korean government decided to turn it into an exporter of^[각주:80] mandarin oranges^[각주:81]. By 1969, a majority of^[각주:82] rural workers had joined this new industry. Additionally, about 2% of all land in Jeju was dedicated to farming^[각주:83] mandarin oranges. In the 1970s, the government launched another program to^[각주:84] bolster^[각주:85] Jeju's tourism industry^[각주:86]. By 1978, tourism had surpassed^[각주:87] agriculture^[각주:88] as the island's largest industry.

All of this change had a significant impact on^[각주:89] haenyeo numbers. Given alternatives to back-breaking labor in^[각주:90] miserable conditions^[각주:91], women abandoned the sea-diving industry in droves^[각주:92]. In the five years between 1965 and 1970, numbers dropped from 23,081 to 14,143. Even more damning to^[각주:93] the haenyeo way of life, education opportunities and attractive positions in emerging industries has deterred younger girls from^[각주:94] becoming haenyeo. In 1970, 31% of haenyeo were 30 years old or younger, 55% were between 30 and 49 years old and only 14% were 50 or older. As of^[각주:95] 2014, however, 98% of haenyeo were over the age of 50.

Developmental process^[각주:96], gear^[각주:97], diving pattern and harvest

Traditionally, girls started to train to become haenyeo when they were 11 years old. Beginning in shallow water^[각주:98], trainees^[각주:99] worked their way up to more challenging^[각주:100] depths. After about seven years of training, a girl was considered^[각주:101] a "full-fledged^[각주:102]" haenyeo. Today, the oldest haenyeo are over 80 years old and have been diving for more than 66 years. 

All together, the tools of a haenyeo consist of a wetsuit, goggles, gloves, chest weights (to assist diving) an L-shaped weeding hoe, and a net attached to a floatation device. The haenyeo stash^[각주:103] their catch in these nets until they are done for the day. 

How long the haenyeo spend in the water depends on the season. Before wetsuits^[각주:104] were available and all they wore were cotton swimsuits, haenyeo could stay in the water for only up to an hour at a time^[각주:105] during the winter months. After an hour, they got out of the water and sat by the fire for 3-4 hours to dry off^[각주:106]. After this break, they would jump back into the water for another hour. During the summer months, however, they stayed in the water for up to 3 hours at a time before a break. With the introduction of^[각주:107] wetsuits, haenyeo found they could stay in the water for five to six hours at a time, even during the winter. 

With each dive, haenyeo plunge up to 30 meters deep^[각주:108] and can hold their breath for^[각주:109] over three minutes. Their harvests consist of abalone, conch^[각주:110], octopus, sea urchins^[각주:111], sea squirt^[각주:112], brown alga^[각주:113], top shell^[각주:114], a variety of sargassum^[각주:115], oysters, sea slugs^[각주:116] etc. The divers must contend with^[각주:117] dangers such as jellyfish^[각주:118], poor weather and sharks.

1. lit. ; [약어] literal; literally; literary; literature; liter(s) [본문으로]
2. independent spirit ; 독립심, 독립적 기상 [본문으로]
3. iron will ; 강철 같은 의지, 굳건한 의지, 철석같은 의지 [본문으로]
4. determination ; 1. [U] ~ (to do sth) 투지 [본문으로]
5. be representative of ; …을 대표하다; …을 나타내다 [본문으로]
6. matriarchal ; [형용사] 사회・제도가 모계[모권] 중심의 ;; US [|meɪtri|ɑ:rkl] UK [|meɪtri|ɑ:kl] ;; 참고 patriarchal [본문으로]
7. date back to ; (시기 따위가) …까지 거슬러 올라가다, (존재) 역사가 …이나 되다(…까지 거슬러 올라가다)/…이래 계속 존재하고 있다 [본문으로]
8. exclusively ; [부사] 배타적으로; 독점적으로; 오로지, 오직 …뿐(solely) [본문으로]
9. profession ; 1. [C] (특히 많은 교육이 필요한 전문적인) 직업[직종] [본문으로]
10. with the exception of ; ~은 제외하고[~ 외에는], ...는 별도로 하고. [본문으로]
11. work alongside ; (+사람) ~와 함께 일하다. (+일,작업) ~에 대해 함께 일하다. [본문으로]
12. monograph ; [명사] (전문 용어) (단일 주제에 관해 보통 단행본 형태로 쓴) 논문 ;; US [|mɑ:nəgrӕf] UK [|mɒnəgrɑ:f] [본문으로]
13. describe ... as ~ ; ...를 ~라고 칭하다, 표현하다, 묘사하다, 평하다 [본문으로]
14. literally ; 1. 문자[말] 그대로 [본문으로]
15. commonly ; [부사] 흔히, 보통 [본문으로]
16. refer to as ; …라고 언급하다, 부르다, 여기다 [본문으로]
17. shift ; 1. CHANGE | [C] ~ (in sth) (위치・입장・방향의) 변화 ;; 참고 ; paradigm shift [본문으로]
18. physiologically ; [부사] 생리학상 , 생리학적으로 ; 생리적으로. [본문으로]
19. subcutaneous fat ; [명사]피하 지방(皮下脂肪) [본문으로]
20. shivering threshold ; 흐름상 "춥다고 느끼는 온도의 임계점" 정도의 의미로 보임 [본문으로]
21. be equipped to ; 능력이 있다 [본문으로]
22. withstand ; [타동사][VN] (with・stood , with・stood / -'stUd /) (격식) 견뎌[이겨] 내다 [본문으로]
23. dried ; 말린 [본문으로]
24. impose ; 1. [타동사][VN] ~ sth (on/upon sth/sb) (새로운 법률・세금 등을) 도입[시행]하다 [본문으로]
25. ordinary people ; 일반인, 보통 사람들 [본문으로]
26. female-dominated ; where women, as opposed to men, are in control or form the majority. [본문으로]
27. subsequently ; [부사] (격식) 그 뒤에, 나중에 [본문으로]
28. laborer ; 1. 노동자, 인부; 임금 노동자, 육체 노동자 [본문으로]
29. lucrative ; [형용사] 수익성이 좋은 [본문으로]
30. up until [till] ; …(에 이르기)까지 ((until[till]의 강조형)) [본문으로]
31. tribute ; 3. [U , C] 공물(특히 과거 속국이 종주국에 바치던 것) ;; US.UK [|trɪbju:t] [본문으로]
32. abolish ; [타동사][VN] (법률・제도・조직을) 폐지하다 [본문으로]
33. catch ; 2. AMOUNT CAUGHT | [C] 잡은 양 [본문으로]
34. make[turn] a profit ; …으로 이익을 얻다, 돈을 벌다 [본문으로]
35. financial situation[condition] ; [명사] 재정 상태 [본문으로]
36. greatly ; [부사] (보통 동사나 분사 앞에 쓰여) (격식) 대단히, 크게 [본문으로]
37. constitute ; 2. [V-N] [진행형으로는 쓰이지 않음] …을 구성하다[이루다] [본문으로]
38. total[gross] income ; 총수입 [본문으로]
39. prominent ; [형용사] 1. 중요한; 유명한 [본문으로]
40. economy ; (pl. -ies) 1. [C] 흔히 the economy 경기; 경제 [본문으로]
41. revenue ; [U] (rev・enues [pl.]) (정부・기관의) 수익[수입/세입] ;; 참고 ; the Inland Revenue [본문으로]
42. develop ; 1. GROW BIGGER/STRONGER | ~ (sth) (from sth) (into sth) 성장[발달]하다[시키다] [본문으로]
43. household ; [명사] (한 집에 사는 사람들을 일컫는) 가정 [본문으로]
44. islet ; [명사] (아주) 작은 섬 ;; US·UK [|aɪlət] [본문으로]
45. reversal ; 1. [C , U] ~ (of sth) (정반대로) 뒤바꿈[뀜], 전환, 반전, 역전 [본문으로]
46. gender role ; (의학) 성역할, 획득성역할, 성적역할(性的役割). 그 사람이 여성인지 남성인지, 또는 어린아이의 경우 여자아이인지 남자아이인지를 가리면서 투사하는 한 개인의 영상. 일반적으로 성(性)의 동일성(同一性)이라고 한다. ;; 참고 ; role [본문으로]
47. look after ; 1. ~을 맡다[돌보다/건사하다] ;; 참고 ; care [본문으로]
48. bring in ; 들여오다; <이익·이자를> 가져오다; <새로운 것을> 받아들이다, 수입하다; <의제 등을> 제출하다; <협력자 등의> 참가를 의뢰하다; <배심원이> <평결(評決)을> 답신(答申)하다; 야구 생환시키다; 경찰에 연행하다 [본문으로]
49. manifestation ; (격식) 1. [C , U] ~ (of sth) (어떤 것이 존재하거나 일어나고 있음을 보여주는) 징후[표명] [본문으로]
50. dowry ; (pl. -ies) 1. (신부의) 지참금 2. (신랑의) 지참금 ;; US.UK [|daʊri] [본문으로]
51. surface ; 2. [자동사][V] (한동안 숨어 있던 것이 갑자기) 나타나다[드러나다], 표면화되다 [본문으로]
52. predominance ; 2. [U] (세력・영향력의) 우세[우위] [본문으로]
53. Confucianism ; [U] 유교 [본문으로]
54. domestic sphere ; 가정의 영역 ;; sphere ; 3. (활동・영향・관심) 영역[-권] [본문으로]
55. be different than ; ~와 다른 ;; different from이 영국 영어와 미국 영어 두 경우 다에서 가장 흔히 쓰인다. 영국 영어에서는 different to도 쓰인다 [본문으로]
56. fill ; 7. JOB | [타동사][VN] (어떤 일・역할 등을) 하다 [본문으로]
57. ancestor worship ceremony ; 조상, 선조에 드리는 제사 [본문으로]
58. property ; (pl. -ies) 1. [U] 재산, 소유물 참고 intellectual property, lost property, public property [본문으로]
59. family line ; (법률) 혈통, 대 [본문으로]
60. colonial rule ; [명사] 식민지 지배[통치]. [본문으로]
61. peasant ; 1. (특히 과거 또는 현대 빈곤 국가의) 소작농[소농] 2. (비격식 못마땅함) (행동이 거친) 무식쟁이 [본문으로]
62. move up ; 승진[출세]하다[to] [본문으로]
63. small-business ; 소(小)기업, 영세 기업 [본문으로]
64. manufacturing plant ; [명사] (축산학) 가공 공장(加工工場), 제조 공장, 생산공장, 제작소 [본문으로]
65. caregiver ; [명사] (병자·불구자·아이들을) 돌보는 사람 [본문으로]
66. domestic chores ; 집안의 허드렛일. [본문으로]
67. appreciation ; 3. [U] ~ (of/for sth) 감사 [본문으로]
68. contribution ; 3. [C] [주로 단수로] 기여, 이바지; 원인 제공 [본문으로]
69. subsidize ; [타동사][VN] 보조금을 주다 [본문으로]
70. exclusive right ; [명사] 독점권, 독점 판매권 [본문으로]
71. request ; [동사] (격식을차려 정중히)요청[요구/신청]하다 [본문으로]
72. inscribe ; [타동사][VN] ~ A (on/in B) | ~ B (with A) (이름 등을) 쓰다[새기다] [본문으로]
73. intangible ; 2. (상업) (회사의 자산이) 무형의 [본문으로]
74. declining ; [형용사] 기우는, 쇠퇴하는, 감소하는 추세의 [본문으로]
75. vestige ; (격식) 1. 자취, 흔적 ;; US.UK [|vestɪdƷ] [본문으로]
76. fall victim to ; …의 희생(물)이 되다; [매력 따위]에 사로잡히다 [본문으로]
77. industrialization ; [U] 산업[공업]화 [본문으로]
78. jumpstart ; [동사, 명사] (자동차(엔진)을)밀어서 시동 걸다, 밀어서 시동 걸기, 힘을 불어넣다, 활성화시키다 [본문으로]
79. practical ; 2. LIKELY TO WORK | (아이디어・방법・행동 방침이) 타당한, 현실성 있는, 실현 가능한 [본문으로]
80. turn sth/sb into sth ; ~을 (~에서) ~이 되게 하다[~으로 바꿔 놓다] [본문으로]
81. mandarin orange ; 밀감 [본문으로]
82. a majority of ; 다수의, 과반수의 [본문으로]
83. be dedicated to ; ~에 전념하다, 전담하다 [본문으로]
84. launch a program ; 계획에 착수하다, 계획을 시작하다 [본문으로]
85. bolster ; [타동사][VN] ~ sth (up) 북돋우다, 강화[개선]하다 [본문으로]
86. tourism industry ; [명사] 관광 산업 [본문으로]
87. surpass ; [동사] (격식) 능가하다, 뛰어넘다 [본문으로]
88. agriculture ; [U] 농업 US.UK [|ӕgrɪkʌltʃə(r)] [본문으로]
89. have an impact on ; ~에 영향을 주다, 끼치다 [본문으로]
90. back-breaking ; [형용사] 육체노동이 허리를 휘게 하는, 등골 빠지는 ;; (체력을) 소모시키는, 매우 힘든.;; 동의어 ; back-busting [본문으로]
91. condition ; 4. CIRCUMSTANCES | [pl.] conditions (생활・작업 등의) 환경[상황] [본문으로]
92. in droves ; 떼지어, 작당하여 [본문으로]
93. damning ; [형용사] 비판적인; 유죄[과오]를 강력 시사하는 [본문으로]
94. deter ; [동사] -rr- ~ sb (from sth/from doing sth) 단념시키다, 그만두게 하다 ;; 참고 ; deterrent [본문으로]
95. as of ; …일자로/…현재, ~부로, [본문으로]
96. developmental process ; 개발과정, 발달과정 [본문으로]
97. gear ; 3. EQUIPMENT/CLOTHES | [U] (특정 활동에 필요한) 장비[복장] [본문으로]
98. shallow water ; 얕은 물 [본문으로]
99. trainee ; [명사] (특정한 직종을 위해) 교육을 받는 사람, 수습 (직원) ;; US.UK [|treɪ|ni:] [본문으로]
100. challenging ; 1. 도전적인, 도전 의식을 북돋우는 [본문으로]
101. be considered ; ~로 간주되다 [본문으로]
102. full-fledged ; [형용사] 깃털이 다 난; 완전히 성장한; 자격을 제대로 갖춘 [본문으로]
103. stash ; [타동사][VN + adv. / prep.] (비격식) (안전한 곳에) 넣어 두다[숨기다] [본문으로]
104. wetsuit ; [명사] (잠수 등을 위해 입는) 고무 옷, 잠수복 [본문으로]
105. at a time ; 따로따로; 한 번에 [본문으로]
106. dry off ; 몸을/~을 말리다 [본문으로]
107. with the introduction of ; ~의 도입으로 [본문으로]
108. plunge up to ; ~(깊이)까지 내려가다, 잠수하다 [본문으로]
109. hold one's breath ; 숨을 멈추다[참다] [본문으로]
110. conch ; [명사] 소라고둥 (껍질) ;; US [kɑ:ntʃ] UK [kɒntʃ] [본문으로]
111. sea urchin ; [명사] 성게 [본문으로]
112. sea squirt ; (동물) 우렁쉥이, 멍게(ascidian) [본문으로]
113. brown alga ; [식물] 갈조; [pl.] 갈조류, 톳 [본문으로]
114. top shell ; 소라 [본문으로]
115. sargassum ; (식물)모자반(sargassum)은 모자반속(Sargassum) 조류의 총칭이다. ;; 동의어 ; sargasso ; ((pl. ~(e)s)) (식물) 사르가소, 모자반속(屬) ((바닷말)) [본문으로]
116. sea slug ; 바다 민달팽이, 갯민숭달팽이 [본문으로]
117. contend with ; (곤란한 문제나 상황과) 씨름하다, …와 다투다. [본문으로]
118. jellyfish ; [명사] pl. jel・ly・fish 해파리 [본문으로]