Robert Falcon Scott

Captain Robert Falcon Scott was a British Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions: the Discovery Expedition of 1901-1904 and the ill-fated^[각주:1] Terra Nova Expedition of 1910-1913. On the first expedition, he set a new southern record by marching to latitude 82°S and discovered the Antarctic Plateau^[각주:2], on which the South Pole is located. On the second venture, Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, less than five weeks after Roald Amundsen's Norwegian expedition. On their return journey, Scott's party discovered plant fossils^[각주:3], proving Antarctica was once forested^[각주:4] and joined to other continents. A planned meeting with supporting dog teams from the base camp failed, despite Scott's written instructions, and at a distance of 150 miles from their base camp and 11 miles from the next depot, Scott and his companions^[각주:5] died. 

Before his appointment to lead the Discovery Expedition, Scott had followed the career of a naval officer in^[각주:6] the Royal Navy. In 1899, he had a chance encounter with^[각주:7] Sir Clements Markham, the president of the Royal Geographical Society, and thus learned of a planned Antarctic expedition^[각주:8], which he soon volunteered to lead. Having taken this step, his name became inseparably associated with^[각주:9] the Antarctic, the field of work to which he remained committed during the final 12 years of his life. 

Following the news of his death, Scott became a celebrated hero, a status reflected by memorials erected across the UK. However, in the last decades of the 20th century, questions were raised about his competence and character. Commentators in the 21st century have regarded Scott more positively after assessing the temperature drop below -40°C (-40°F) in March 1912 and after re-discovering Scott's written orders of October 1911, in which he had instructed the dog teams to meet and assist him on the return trip. 

Discovery Expedition 1901-1904

The British National Antarctic Expedition, later known as the Discovery Expedition, was a joint enterprise of the RGS and the Royal Society. A long-cherished dream of^[각주:10] Markham's, it required all of his skills and cunning to^[각주:11] bring the expedition to fruition^[각주:12], under naval command and largely staffed by^[각주:13] naval personnel^[각주:14]. Scott may not have been Markham's first choice as leader but, having decided on him, the older man's support remained constant. There were committee battles over the scope of Scott's responsibilities, with the Royal Society pressing to put a scientist in charge of the expedition's programme while Scott merely commanded the ship. Eventually, however, Markham's view prevailed; Scott was given overall command, and was promoted to the rank of commander before Discovery sailed for the Antarctic on 6 August 1901. King Edward VII, who showed a keen interest in the expedition, visited the Discovery the day before the ship left British shores in August 1901, and during the visit appointed Scott a Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO), his personal gift. 

Experience of Antarctic or Arctic waters was almost entirely lacking within the 50-strong party and there was very little special training in equipment or techniques before the ship set sail. Dogs were taken, as were skis, but the dogs succumbed to disease in the first season. Nevertheless, the dogs' performance impressed Scott, and, despite moral qualms, he implemented the principle of slaughtering dogs for dog-food to increase their range. During an early attempt at ice travel, a blizzard trapped expedition members in their tent and their decision to leave it resulted in the death of George Vince, who slipped over a precipice on^[각주:15] 11 March 1902. 

The expedition had both scientific and exploration objectives; the later included a long journey south, in the direction of the South Pole. This march, undertaken by Scott, Ernest Shackleton and Edward Wilson, took them to a latitude of 82° 17' S, about 530 miles (850 km) from the pole. A harrowing return journey^[각주:16] brought about Shackleton's physical collapse and is early departure from the expedition. The second year showed improvements in technique and achievement, culminating in^[각주:17] Scott's western journey which led to the discovery of the Polar Plateau. This has been described by one writer as "one of the great polar journeys". The scientific results of the expedition included important biological, zoological and geological findings^[각주:18]. Some of the meteorological magnetic readings^[각주:19], however, were later criticized as amateurish^[각주:20] and inaccurate. 

At the end of the expedition it took the combined efforts of two relief ships and the use of explosives to free Discovery from the ice. His insistence during the expedition on Royal Navy formalities^[각주:21] had made for uneasy relations with the merchant navy contingent, many of whom departed for home with the first relief ship in March 1903. Second-in-command Albert Armitage, a merchant officer, was offered the chance to go home on compassionate grounds^[각주:22], but interpreted the offer as a personal slight, and refused. Armitage also promoted the idea that the decision to send Shackleton home on the relief ship arose from Scott's animosity rather than^[각주:23] Shackleton's physical breakdown^[각주:24]. Although there was later tension between Scott and Shackleton, when their polar ambitions directly clashed, mutual civilities were preserved in public; Scott joined in the official receptions that greeted Shackleton on his return in 1909 after the Nimrod Expedition, and the two exchanged polite letters about their respective ambitions in 1909-10. 

Between expeditions

Discovery returned to Britain in September 1904. The expedition had caught the public imagination, and Scott became a popular hero. He was awarded a cluster of honours and medals, including many from overseas, and was promoted to the rank of captain. He was invited to Balmoral Castle, where King Edward VII promoted him a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (CVO).

Scott's next few years were crowded. For more than a year he was occupied with public receptions, lectures and the writing of the expedition record, The Voyage of the Discovery. In January 1906, he resumed his full-time naval first as^[각주:25] an Assistant Director of Naval Intelligence at the Admiralty and, in August, as flag-captain to^[각주:26] Rear-Admiral^[각주:27] Sir George Egerton on HMS Victorious. He was now moving in ever more exalted^[각주:28] social circles^[각주:29] - a telegram to Markham in February 1907 refers to meetings with the Queen and Crown Prince of Portugal, and a later letter home reports lunching with the Commander-in-Chief of^[각주:30] the Fleet and Prince Heinrich of Prussia. HMS Albemarle, a battleship commanded by Scott, collided with the battleship HMS Commonwealth on 11 February 1907, suffering minor bow damage^[각주:31]. 

Dispute with Shackleton 

By early 1906, Scott had sounded out the RGS about the possible funding of a future Antarctic expedition. It was therefore unwelcome news to him that^[각주:32] Ernest Shackleton had announced his own plans to travel to Discovery's old McMurdo Sound base and launch a bid for the South Pole from there. Scott claimed, in the first of a series of letters to Shackleton, that the area around McMurdo was his own "field of work" to which he had prior rights until he chose to give them up, and that Shackleton should therefore work from an entirely different area. In this, he was strongly supported by Discovery's former zoologist, Edward Wilson, who asserted that Scott's rights extended to the entire Ross Sea sector. This Shackleton refused to concede^[각주:33]. 

Finally, to end the impasse^[각주:34], Shakleton agreed, in a letter to Scott dated 17 May 1907, to work to the east of the 170° W meridian and therefore to avoid all the familiar Discovery ground. In the end it was a promise that he was unable to keep after his search for alternative landing grounds proved fruitless. With his only other option being to return home, he set up his headquarters at Cape Royds, close to the old Discovery base. For this he was roundly condemned by^[각주:35] the British polar establishment at the time. 

Among modern polar writers, Ranulph Fiennes regards Shackleton's actions as a technical breach of honour, but adds: "My personal belief is that Shackleton was basically honest but circumstances forced his McMurdo landing, much to his distress^[각주:36]." The polar historian Beau Riffenburgh states that the promise to Scott "should never ethically have been demanded", and compares Scott's intransigence on^[각주:37] this matter unfavourably with the generous attitudes of^[각주:38] the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen, who gave freely of his advice and expertise to all, whether they were potential rivals or not. 

Terra Nova Expedition 1910-1912

Preparation 

Shackleton returned from the Antarctic having narrowly failed to reach the Pole, and this gave Scott the impetus to proceed with plans for his second Antarctic expedition. On 24 March 1909, he had taken the Admiralty-based appointment of naval assistant to the Second Sea Lord which placed him conveniently in London. In December he was released on half-pay, to take up the full-time command of the British Antarctic Expedition 1910, to be known as the Terra Nova Expedition from its ship, Terra Nova. 

It was the expressed hope of the RGS that this expedition would be "scientific primarily, with exploration and the Pole as secondary objects" but, unlike the Discovery Expedition, neither they nor the Royal Society were in charge this time. In his expedition prospectus^[각주:39], Scott stated that its main objective was "to reach the South Pole, and to secure for the British Empire the honour of this acievement". Scott had, as Markham observed, been "bitten by the Pole mania". 

In a memorandum of 1908, Scott presented his view that man-hauling to the South Pole was impossible and that motor traction^[각주:40] was needed. Snow vehicles did not yet exist however, and so his engineer Reginald Skelton developed the idea of a caterpillar track for snow surfaces^[각주:41]. In the middle of 1909 Scott realized that motors were unlikely to get him all the way to the Pole, and decided additionally to take horses (based on Shackleton's near success in attaining the Pole, using ponies), and dogs and skis after consultation with Nansen during trials of the motors in Norway in March 1910. Man-hauling would still be needed on the Polar Plateau, on the assumption that motors and animals could not ascend the crevassed Beardmore Glacier^[각주:42]. 

Dog expert Cecil Meares was going to Siberia to select the dogs, and Scott ordered that, while he was there, he should deal with the purchase of Manchurian ponies. Meares was not an experienced horse-dealer, and the ponies he chose proved mostly of poor quality, and ill-suited to prolonged Antarctic work. Meanwhile, Scott also recruited Bernard Day, from Shackleton's expedition, as his motor expert. 

First season 

On 15 June 1910, Scott's ship Terra Nova, an old converted whaler, set sail from Cardiff, South Wales. Scott meanwhile was fundraising in Britain and joined the ship later in South Africa. Arriving in Melbourne, Australia in October 1910, Scott received a telegram from Amundsen stating: "Beg leave to inform you Fram proceeding Antarctic Amundsen", possibly indicating that Scott faced a race to the pole. 

The expedition suffered a series of early misfortunes which hampered the first season's work^[각주:43] and impaired preparations for the main polar march^[각주:44]. On its journey from New Zealand to the Antarctic, Terra Nova nearly sank in a storm and was then trapped in pack ice for 20 days, far longer than other ships had experienced, which meant a late-season arrival and less time for preparatory work before the Antarctic winter. At Cape Evans, Antarctica, one of the motor sledges was lost during its unloading from the ship, breaking through the sea ice and sinking. Deteriorating weather conditions^[각주:45] and weak, unacclimatized ponies^[각주:46] affected the initial depot-laying journey, so that the expedition's main supply point, One Ton Depot, was laid 35 miles (56 km) north of its planned location at 80° S. Lawrence Oates, in charge of the ponies, advised Scott to kill ponies for food and advance the depot to 80° S, which Scott refused to do. Oates is reported as saying to Scott, "Sir, I'm afraid you'll come to regret not taking my advice." Four ponies died during this journey either from the cold or because they slowed the team down and were shot. 

On its return to base, the expedition learned of the presence of Amundsen, camped with his crew and a large contingent of dogs in the Bay of Whales, 200 miles (320 km) to their east. Scott conceded that his ponies would not be able to start early enough in the season to compete with Amundsen's cold-tolerant dog teams for the pole, and also acknowledged that the Norwegian's base was closer to the pole by 60 miles. Wilson was more hopeful, whereas Gran shared Scott's concern. Shortly afterwards^[각주:47], the death toll among^[각주:48] the ponies increased to six, three drowning when sea-ice unexpectedly disintegrated, casting in doubt the possibility of reaching the pole at all. However, during the 1911 winter Scott's confidence increased; on 2 August, after the return of a three-man party from their winter journey to Cape Crozier, Scott wrote, "I feel sure we are as near perfection as experience can direct". 

Journey to the Pole

Scott outlined his plans for the southern journey to the entire shore party, leaving open who would form the final polar team, according to their performance during the polar travel. Eleven days before Scott's teams set off towards the pole, Scott gave the dog driver Meares the following written orders at Cape Evans dated 20 October 1911 to^[각주:49] secure Scott's speedy return from the pole using dogs: 

About the first week of February I should like you to start your third journey to the South, the object being to hasten the return of the third Southern unit [the polar party] and give it a chance to catch the ship. The date of your departure must depend on news received from returning units, the extent of the depot of dog food you have been able to leave at One Ton Camp, the state of the dogs, etc ... It looks at present as though you should aim at meeting the returning party about March 1 in Latitude 82 or 82.30

The march south began on 1 Novembr 1911, a caravan of^[각주:50] mixed transport groups (motors, dogs, horses), with loaded sledges, travelling at different rates, all designed to support a final group of four men who would make a dash for the Pole^[각주:51]. The southbound party^[각주:52] steadily reduced in size as successive support teams turned back. Scott reminded the returning Surgeon-Lieutenant Atkinson of the order "to take the two dog-teams south in the event of Meares having to return home, as seemed likely". By 4 January 1912, the last two four-man groups had reached 87° 34′ S. Scott announced his decision: five men (Scott, Edward Wilson, Henry Bowers, Lawrence Oates and Edgar Evans) would go forward, the other three (Teddy Evans, William Lashly and Tom Crean) would return. The chosen group marched on, reaching the Pole on 17 January 1912, only to find that Amundsen had preceded them by five weeks^[각주:53]. Scott's anguish is^[각주:54] indicated in his diary: "The worst has happened"; "All the day dreams must go"; "Great God! This is an awful place".

Last march 

The deflated party^[각주:55] began the 800-mile (1,300 km) return journey on 19 January. "I'm afraid the return journey is going to be dreadfully tiring and monotonous", wrote Scott on that day. The party made good progress despite poor weather, and had completed the Polar Plateau stage of their journey, approximately 300 miles (500 km), by 7 February. In the following days^[각주:56], as the party made the 100-mile (160 km) descent of the Beardmore Glacier, the physical condition of Edgar Evans, which Scott had noted with concern as early as 23 January, declined sharply. A fall on 4 February had left Evans "dull and incapable", and on 17 February, after another fall, he died near the glacier foot^[각주:57]. With 400 miles (670 km) still to travel across the Ross Ice Shelf, Scott's party's prospects^[각주:58] steadily worsened as, with deteriorating weather, a puzzling lack of^[각주:59] fuel in the depots, hunger and exhaustion, they struggled northward. 

Meanwhile, back at Cape Evans, Terra Nova arrived at the beginning of February, and Atkinson decided to unload the supplies from the ship with his own men rather than set out south with the dogs to meet Scott as ordered. When Atkinson belatedly left for^[각주:60] the planned rendezvous with^[각주:61] Scott, he was delayed at Hut Point by bad weather from 13-18 February, when Tom Crean arrived through a blizzard with news of the collapse of^[각주:62] Teddy Evans. After effecting a rescue of Evans who needed urgent medical attention, Atkinson tried to assign the experienced navigator Wright south to meet Scott, but chief meteorologist Simpson declared he needed Wright for scientific work. Atkinson then decided to send the short-sighted Apsley Cherry-Garrard on 25 February, too late to reach the original rendezvous at latitude 82 or 82.30 on 1 March. Cherry-Garrard reached One Ton Depot, on March 4th and was left to make his own decision on whether to proceed further. He had just enough dog food to run to the next depot and then dash for home but Scott's original timetable would have made it possible to pass Scott travelling in the opposite direction, if he attempted to proceed further. Cherry-Garrard decided that it was better to wait for Scott rather than risk failing to meet him on the march. At the limit of his supplies he turned for home on 10 March barely making it through the worsening weather, reaching Hut Point on 16 March with both men and dogs unfit for further travel. 

On the return journey from the Pole, Scott reached the 82°S meeting point for the dog teams, 300 miles form Hut Point, three days ahead of schedule, nothing in his diary for 27 February 1912 "We are naturally always discussing possibility of meeting dogs, where and when, etc. It is a critical position. We may find ourselves in safety at the next depot, but there is a horrid element of doubt." On 2 March Oates began to suffer from the effects of frostbite and the party's progress slowed as he was increasingly unable to assist in the workload, eventually only able to drag himself alongside the men pulling the sledge. By 10 March the temperature had dropped unexpectedly to below -40°C (-40 °F), and it became evident the dog teams were not coming: "The dogs which would have been our salvation have evidently failed. Meares [the dog-driver] had a bad trip home I suppose. It's a miserable jumble." In a farewell letter to Sir Edgar Speyer, dated 16 March, Scott wondered whether he had overshot the meeting point and fought the growing suspicion that he had in fact been abandoned by the dog teams: "we very nearly came through, and it's a pity to have missed it, but lately I have felt that we have overshot our mark. No-one is to blame and I hope no attempt will be made to suggest that we had lacked support." On the same day, Oates, whose toes had become frostbitten, voluntarily left the tent and walked to his death. Scott wrote that Oates' last words were "I am just going outside and may be some time". 

After walking 20 miles farther despite Scott's toes now becoming frostbitten, the three remaining men made their final camp on 19 March, 11 miles (18 km) short of One Ton Depot. The next day a fierce blizzard prevented their making any progress. During the next nine days, as their supplies ran out, and with storms still raging outside the tent, Scott and his companions wrote their farewell letters. Scott gave up his diary after 23 March, save for a final entry on^[각주:63] 29 March, with its concluding words: "Last entry. For God's sake look after our people". He left letters to Wilson's mother, Bowers' mother, a string of^[각주:64] notables^[각주:65] including his former commander Sir George Egerton, his own mother and his wife. He also wrote his "Message to the Public", primarily a vindication of^[각주:66] the expedition's organization and conduct in which the party's failure is attributed to weather^[각주:67] and other misfortunes^[각주:68], but ending on an inspirational note, with these words: 

We took risks, we knew we took them; things have come out against us, and therefore we have no cause for complaint, but bow to the will of Providence, determined still to do our best to the last ... Had we lived, I should have had a tale to tell of the hardihood^[각주:69], endurance, and courage of my companions which would have stirred the heart of every Englishman. These rough notes and our dead bodies must tell the tale, but surely, surely, a great rich country like ours will see that those who are dependent on us are properly provided for. 

Scott is presumed to have died on 29 March 1912, or possibly one day later. The positions of the bodies in the tent when it was discovered eight months later suggested that Scott was the last of the three to die. 

The bodies of Scott and his companions were discovered by a search party on 12 November 1912 and their records retrieved. Tryggve Gran, who was part of the search party, described the scene as, "snowcovered til up above the door, with Scott in the middle, half out of his bagg [sic]^[각주:70]... the frost had made the skin yellow & transparent & I've never seen anything worse in my life." Their final camp became their tomb; a high cairn of snow was erected over it, topped by a roughly fashioned cross, erected using Gran's skis. In January 1913, before Terra Nova left for home, a large wooden cross was made by the ship's carpenters, inscribed with the names of the lost party and Tennyson's line from his poem Ulysses: "To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield", and was erected as a permanent memorial on Observation Hill, overlooking Hut Point^[각주:71]. 

A century of storms and snow have covered the cairn^[각주:72] and tent, which are now encased in the Ross Ice Shelf^[각주:73] as it inches towards the Ross Sea^[각주:74]. In 2001 glaciologist^[각주:75] Charles R. Bentley estimated that the tent with the bodies was under about 75 feet (23 m) of ice and about 30 miles (48 km) from the point where they died; he speculated that in about 275 years the bodies would reach the Ross Sea, and perhaps float away inside an iceberg. 

1. ill-fated ; [형용사] (격식) (특히 죽음·실패로) 불행하게 끝나는, 불운한 ;; [ADJ] If you describe something as ill-fated, you mean that it ended or will end in an unsuccessful or unfortunate way. [본문으로]
2. plateau ; 1. 고원; 높고 편평한 땅 ;; 미국식 [plæˈtoʊ] 영국식 [ˈplætəʊ] [본문으로]
3. plant fossil ; [명사] (광산공학) 식물 화석(植物化石) [본문으로]
4. forest ; [타동사] 나무로 덮이게 하다 ; …에 식림(植林)하다, 삼림을 만들다(afforest). [본문으로]
5. companion ; 1. (文語) 동료, 동지, 상대방(comrade, associate) [본문으로]
6. naval officer ; 해군 장교; (美)세관 공무원 [본문으로]
7. a chance encounter ; 우연한 만남[접촉] [본문으로]
8. learn of ; …에 대해 배우다. [본문으로]
9. inseparable ; [형용사]분리할 수 없는, 나눌 수 없는; 떨어질 수 없는 ((from)) ;; [부사] inseparably [본문으로]
10. long-cherished ; 오랜 염원인, 오랫동안 바라던 [본문으로]
11. cunning ; [U] 1. 교활, 빈틈없음, 잔꾀; 간사(craftiness) ;; 2. 솜씨, 숙련, 교묘(dexterity) ;; [NOUN] Cunning is the ability to achieve things in a clever way, often by deceiving other people. [본문으로]
12. bring sth to fruition ; …을 실현시키다. ;; come[bring] to fruition ;; 결실을 맺다[보다] [본문으로]
13. staff ; [타동사][VN] [주로 수동태로] 직원으로 일하다; 직원을 제공하다 ; 참조 overstaffed, short-staffed, understaffed [본문으로]
14. personnel ; 1. [pl.] (조직·군대의) 인원[직원들] ;; [NOUN] [oft N n] The personnel of an organization are the people who work for it. [본문으로]
15. precipice ; [명사] 벼랑 ; 참조 precipitous ;; [NOUN] A precipice is a very steep cliff on a mountain. ;; 미국∙영국 [ˈpresəpɪs] [본문으로]
16. harrowing ; [형용사] 끔찍한, 참혹한 ;; [ADJ] A harrowing experience is extremely upsetting or disturbing. [본문으로]
17. culminate ; [자동사][V] ~ (in/with sth) (격식) (~으로) 끝이 나다[막을 내리다] ;; [VERB] If you say that an activity, process, or series of events culminates in or with a particular event, you mean that event happens at the end of it. [본문으로]
18. finding ; 1. [주로 복수로] (조사·연구 등의) 결과[결론] ;; 영영사전 [NOUN] [usu pl, usu with supp] Someone's findings are the information they get or the conclusions they come to as the result of an investigation or some research. [본문으로]
19. reading ; 1. [U, C] 읽기, 독서; 독서력; (독서로 얻은) 지식, 학식. ;; 3. (극의 연출·악곡 등에 대한) 해석(법), 연출(법), 연주(법); (상황 따위의) 해석, 판단. ;; 4. [U] [집합적] 읽을거리; (readings) 선집(選集), 독본. [본문으로]
20. amateurish ; [형용사] (보통 못마땅함) 비전문적인, 서투른 ; 반의어 professional ;; [ADJ] If you describe something as amateurish, you think that it is not skilfully made or done. ;; 미국∙영국 [ˈæmətərɪʃ; -tʃə-] [본문으로]
21. formality ; (pl. -ies) 1. [C, 주로 복수로] (반드시 거쳐야 할) 형식상의 절차 ;; [NOUN] If you say that an action or procedure is just a formality, you mean that it is done only because it is normally done, and that it will not have any real effect on the situation. [본문으로]
22. on compassionate grounds ; 동정심을 갖고서. [본문으로]
23. animosity ; [U, C] (pl. -ies) ~ (toward(s) sb/sth) | ~ (between A and B) 반감, 적대감 ; 유의어 hostility ;; 미국식 [-ˈmɑːs-] 영국식 [ˌænɪˈmɒsəti] [본문으로]
24. breakdown ; 3. [CU] (교섭 등의) 결렬; 좌절; (정신·육체 등의) 쇠약 [본문으로]
25. resume ; 격식) 1. 재개하다[되다], 다시 시작하다[되다] [본문으로]
26. flag captain ; (해군) 기함(旗艦)의 함장 ;; [NOUN] the captain of a flagship [본문으로]
27. rear admiral ; [명사] 해군 소장 ;; HELP미국 해군에서는 rear admiral을 rear admiral upper half (해군 소장)와 rear admiral lower half (해군 준장)로 구분하지만, 영국 영어에서는 해군 준장을 commodore라고 한다. ;; [NOUN] Rear Admiral is a rank in the navy. It is the rank below Vice Admiral. [본문으로]
28. exalted ; [형용사] 1. (격식 또는 유머) (지위·계급 등이) 높은, 고위층의 ;; [ADJ] Someone or something that is at an exalted level is at a very high level, especially with regard to rank or importance. [본문으로]
29. social circles ; 사교계 [본문으로]
30. commander-in-chief ; [명사] pl. commanders-in-chief C.-in-C. 총사령관 ;; [NOUN] A commander-in-chief is an officer in charge of all the forces in a particular area. [본문으로]
31. bow ; 2. (bows [pl.]) 뱃머리, 이물 참조 stern n. [본문으로]
32. unwelcome ; [형용사] 반갑지 않은 ; 반의어 welcome [본문으로]
33. concede ; 1. ~ sth (to sb) | ~ sb sth (무엇이 옳거나 논리적임을) 인정하다[수긍하다] ;; 2. ~ sth (to sb) | ~ sb sth (특히 마지못해) 내주다[허락하다] ;; 3. ~ (defeat) (패배를) 인정하다 ; 참조 concession ;; [VERB] If you concede something, you admit, often unwillingly, that it is true or correct. [본문으로]
34. impasse ; [명사] 교착 상태 ; 유의어 deadlock ;; 미국식 [ˈɪmpæs] 영국식 [ˈæmpɑːs] [본문으로]
35. roundly ; [부사] 강력하게, 대대적으로 ;; [ADV] If you are roundly condemned or criticized, you are condemned or criticized forcefully or by many people. If you are roundly defeated, you are defeated completely. [본문으로]
36. distress ; [U] 1. (정신적) 고통, 괴로움 ;; 2. 고충, 곤경 ; 유의어 hardship ;; 3. 조난 (위험) ;; [NOUN] Distress is a state of extreme sorrow, suffering, or pain [본문으로]
37. intransigence (intransigency) ; [U] (정치상의) 비타협적인 태도, 타협[양보]하지 않음 ;; [NOUN] If you talk about someone's intransigence, you mean that they refuse to behave differently or to change their attitude to something. ;; 미국∙영국 [intrǽnsədƷəns(i)] [본문으로]
38. compare unfavourably with ; ...에 비하면 뒤진다. [본문으로]
39. prospectus ; 1. (설립) 취지서, (사업·계획 등의) 강령, 내용 안내서; [증권] (공모시의) 안내서 ;; 미국∙영국 [prəˈspektəs] [본문으로]
40. motor traction ; 발동기(發動機)에 의한 견인(牽弓) ;; (전기공학, 전자공학, 전산학, 통신학) 견인 전동기 [본문으로]
41. caterpillar track ; [Noun] A continuous track in the form of a steel or rubber belt fitted instead of wheels to crawlers, bulldozers, tanks and similar off-road vehicles. ;; 포크래인이나 탱크의 트랙바퀴 [본문으로]
42. crevasse ; [타동사] …에 틈을 만들다, 금가게 하다. ;; 미국∙영국 [krəˈvæs] [본문으로]
43. hamper ; [타동사][VN] [흔히 수동태로] 방해하다 ; 유의어 hinder ;; [VERB] If someone or something hampers you, they makes it difficult for you to do what you are trying to do. [본문으로]
44. impair ; [타동사][VN] (격식) 손상[악화]시키다 ;; [VERB] If something impairs something such as an ability or the way something works, it damages it or makes it worse. [본문으로]
45. deteriorating ; 악화중인, 악화되어가고 있는 ;; 점점 더 나빠지는 [본문으로]
46. acclimatize (英 또한 -ise, 美 또한 ac·cli·mate)) ; [자, 타동사] ~ (yourself) (to sth) (장소·기후 등에) 익숙해지다[적응하다] ;; 미국∙영국 [əˈklaɪmətaɪz] [본문으로]
47. shortly afterward(s) ; 곧 [본문으로]
48. death toll ; [명사] (사고·전쟁·재난 등에 의한) 사망자수 ;; [NOUN] The death toll of an accident, disaster, or war is the number of people who die in it. [본문으로]
49. date ; 1. [타동사][VN] 날짜를 적다[기입하다] [본문으로]
50. caravan ; 1. (사막의) 대상(隊商); (순례자 등의) 여행자단 ;; 3. (자동차로 끄는) 트레일러, 이동 주택( trailer) ;; 4. 탈것의 행렬 ;; [NOUN] A caravan is a vehicle without an engine that can be pulled by a car or van. It contains beds and cooking equipment so that people can live or spend their holidays in it. in AM, usually use trailer [본문으로]
51. make a dash[bolt] for[at] ; …을 향해 돌진하다 ;; …을 향하여 단숨에 내닫다 ;; try to escape or get somewhere quickly [본문으로]
52. southbound ; [형용사] 남행의, 남쪽으로 가는. ;; bound for south, going southward [본문으로]
53. precede ; [타동사] 1. (…의 점에서) (위치적으로) …에 선행(先行)하다, …의 앞을 가다; (시간적으로) …에 앞서다, 앞서 가다[오다, 있다][in]. ;; [VERB] If one event or period of time precedes another, it happens before it. [본문으로]
54. anguish ; [U] (격식) (극심한) 괴로움, 비통 ;; [NOUN] Anguish is great mental suffering or physical pain. [본문으로]
55. deflated ; [형용사] 기분이 상한, 기가 꺾인 [본문으로]
56. in the following days ; 다음 며칠 동안 [본문으로]
57. foot ; 8. (보통 the foot) 최저부, 최하부(base); (양말 따위의) 발 부분; (기둥 따위의) 밑동; (산의) 기슭; (사다리·층계의) 아랫 부분; (페이지의) 아래쪽; 〈해사〉 (돛의) 아래쪽; (침대 등의) 발쪽, 발치 ;; bottom, base (opp. head). [본문으로]
58. 's 를 두번 연달아서 사용한 것을 확인 [본문으로]
59. puzzling ; [형용사] 곤혹하게 하는, 헷갈리게 하는, 영문 모를 [본문으로]
60. belatedly ; [부사] 늦게 ; 뒤늦게 ; 시대에 뒤지게. [본문으로]
61. rendezvous ; (pl. rendezvous[-vuːz]) (불어에서) 1. ~ (with sb) 만날 약속, 만남 ;; 2. (누구와) 만나기로 한 장소 ;; [NOUN] A rendezvous is a meeting, often a secret one, that you have arranged with someone for a particular time and place. ;; 미국식 [ˈrɑːn-] 영국식 [ˈrɒndɪvuː; -deɪ-] [본문으로]
62. collapse ; 3. [U, C, 주로 단수로] (갑자기 몸이 아파) 쓰러짐; 쇠약(한 상태) [본문으로]
63. entry ; 7. [C] ~ (in sth) (사전·장부·일기 등의 개별) 항목 [본문으로]
64. a string of ; 일련의, 여러개의 [본문으로]
65. notable ; [주로 복수로] (격식) 유명[중요] 인물 [본문으로]
66. vindication ; 1. [UC] (명예·요구 등의) 옹호, 변호, 지지 ;; 2. [UC] 입증; (비난 등에 대한) 변명, 해명; 정당성 [본문으로]
67. be attributed to ; …에 기인하다; …의 덕분으로 여겨지다, ~때문이다. [본문으로]
68. misfortune ; 2. [C] 불행(한 사고·일·상황) ; 유의어 blow, disaster ;; [NOUN] A misfortune is something unpleasant or unlucky that happens to someone. [본문으로]
69. hardihood ; [U] 대담, 배짱, 용기(boldness); 뻔뻔스러움, 철면피; 힘, 강장(强壯); 활력; 불굴의 정신 ;; [NOUN] courage, daring, or audacity [본문으로]
70. sic ; [부사] (라틴어에서) 원문 그대로임(다른 곳에서 따와 인용하는 단어에 철자나 다른 오류가 있을 경우 그것을 알지만 원문 그대로임을 나타내기 위해 그 단어 뒤에 씀) ;; [etc.] You write sic in brackets after a word or expression when you want to indicate to the reader that although the word looks odd or wrong, you intended to write it like that or the original writer wrote it like that. ;; 미국∙영국 [sɪk; siːk] [본문으로]
71. overlooking ; [형용사] 바라보는, 내려다보는 [본문으로]
72. cairn ; [명사] (돌을 쌓아 만든) 이정표; 돌무덤 ;; [NOUN] A cairn is a pile of stones which marks a boundary, a route across rough ground, or the top of a mountain. A cairn is sometimes also built in memory of someone. ;; 미국식 [kern] 영국식 [keən] [본문으로]
73. encase ; [타동사][VN] [흔히 수동태로] ~ sth (in sth) (격식) (특히 보호하기 위해) 감싸다[둘러싸다] ;; [VERB] If a person or an object is encased in something, they are completely covered or surrounded by it. [본문으로]
74. inch ; [자, 타동사][+ adv. / prep.] 조금씩[서서히] 움직이다[움직이게 하다] ;; [VERB] To inch somewhere or to inch something somewhere means to move there very slowly and carefully, or to make something do this. [본문으로]
75. glaciologist ; [명사] 빙하학자, 빙하 연구가. [본문으로]