[Annotated] Chinoiserie

Chinoiserie^[각주:1] is the European interpretation and imitation of Chinese and East Asian artistic traditions, especially in the decorative arts^[각주:2], garden design, architecture, literature, theatre, and music. The aesthetic of^[각주:3] Chinoiserie has been expressed in different ways depending on the region. Its acknowledgement derives from the current of^[각주:4] Orientalism, which studied Far East cultures from a historical, philological, anthropological^[각주:5], philosophical and religious point of view. First appearing in the 17th century, this trend was popularized in^[각주:6] the 18th century due to the rise in^[각주:7] trade with China and East Asia. 

As a style, chinoiserie is related to the Rococo style. Both styles are characterized by exuberant decoration^[각주:8], asymmetry^[각주:9], a focus on materials, and stylized nature^[각주:10] and subject matter that focuses on leisure and pleasure. Chinoiserie focuses on subjects that were thought by colonial-era Europeans to be typical of Chinese culture. 

History 

Chinoiserie entered European art and decoration in the mid-to-late 17th century^[각주:11]; the work of Athanasius Kircher influenced the study of orientalism. The popularity of^[각주:12] chinoiserie peaked around the middle of^[각주:13] the 18th century when it was associated with^[각주:14] the rococo style and with works by Francois Boucher, Thomas Chippendale, and Jean-Baptist Pillement. It was also popularized by the influx of^[각주:15] Chinese and Indian goods brought annually to Europe abroad English, Dutch, French, and Swedish East India Companies. Though chinoiserie never fully went out of fashion^[각주:16], it declined in Europe by the 1760s when the neoclassical style^[각주:17] gained popularity^[각주:18], though remained popular in the newly formed United States through the early 19th century. There was a revival of popularity for^[각주:19] chinoiserie in Europe and the United States from the mid-19th century through the 1920s, and today in elite interior design and fashion. 

Though usually understood as a European style, chinoiserie was a global phenomenon^[각주:20]. Local versions of chinoiserie were developed in India, Japan, Persia, and particularly Latin America. Through the Manila Galleon Trade, Spanish traders brought large amounts of Chinese porcelain, lacquer^[각주:21], textiles, and spices from Chinese merchants based in Manila to New Spanish markets in Acapulco^[각주:22], Panama, and Lima. Those products then inspired local artists and artisans^[각주:23] such as ceramicists^[각주:24] making Talavera pottery at Puebla de Los Angeles. 

Popularization^[각주:25]

There were many reasons why chinoiserie gained such popularity in Europe in the 18th century. Europeans had a fascination with^[각주:26] the exotic East due to their increased, but still restricted, access to new cultures through expanded trade with East Asia, especially China. The limited number of European first-hand experiences of^[각주:27] East Asia and their restricted circulation created a level of mystification^[각주:28] and misinformation that^[각주:29] contributed to^[각주:30] the mystification of^[각주:31] East Asian cultures. The 'China' indicated in the term 'Chinoiserie' represented in European people's mind^[각주:32] a wider region of the globe that could embrace China itself, but also Japan, Korea, South-East Asia, India or even Persia. In art, the style of the Orient was considered a source of inspiration; the atmosphere rich in images^[각주:33] and the harmonic designs of^[각주:34] the oriental style reflected the picture of an ideal world^[각주:35], from which to draw ideas in order to reshape one own's culture^[각주:36]. For this reason the style of Chinoiserie is to be regarded as an important result of the exchange between the West and the East. During the 19th century, and especially in its latter period^[각주:37], the style of Chinoiserie was assimilated under^[각주:38] the generic definition of^[각주:39] exoticism^[각주:40]. Even thought the root of the word 'Chinoiserie' is 'Chine' (China), the Europeans of the 17th and 18th centuries didn't have a clear conceptualization of how^[각주:41] China was in reality^[각주:42]. Often terms like 'Orient', Far East' or 'China' were all equally used to signify the region of^[각주:43] Eastern Asia that had proper Chinese culture as a major representative^[각주:44], but the meaning of the term could change according to different contexts. Sir WIlliam Chambers for example, in his oeuvre^[각주:45] A Dissertation on^[각주:46] Oriental Gardening of 1772, generically addresses China as the 'Orient'. In the financial records of Louis XIV during the 17th and 18th centuries were already registered expressions like 'facon de la Chine', Chinese manner, or 'a la chinoise', made in the Chinese way. In the 19th century the term 'Chinoiserie' appeared for the first time in French literature. In the novel L'Interdiction published in 1836, Honore de Balzac used Chinoiserie to refer to the craftworks made in the Chinese style. From this moment on the term gained momentum^[각주:47] and started being used more frequently to mean objects produced in the Chinese style but sometimes also to indicate graceful objects of small dimension or of scarce account. In 1878 'Chinoiserie' entered formally in the Dictionnaire de l'Academie. 

After the spread of Marco Polo's narrations, the knowledge of China held by the Europeans continued to derive essentially from reports made by merchants and diplomatic envoys. Dating from the latter half of the 17th century a relevant role in this exchange of information was then taken up by the Jesuit missionaries, who's unresting work of^[각주:48] record and transcription^[각주:49] gave the European public a new deeper insight of the Chinese empire and its culture. 

While Europeans frequently held inaccurate ideas about East Asia, this did not necessarily preclude their fascination and respect^[각주:50]. In particular^[각주:51], the Chinese who had "exquisitely^[각주:52] finished art^[각주:53]... [and] whose court ceremonial was even more elaborate than that of Versailles^[각주:54]" were viewed as highly civilized. According to Voltaire in his Art de la Chine, "The fact remains that four thousand years ago, when we did not know how to read, they [the Chinese] knew everything essentially useful of which we boast today." In other words, somewhere, on the other side of the world, there existed a culture so rich that it rivaled the civilizations of Rome and Greece. Chinoiserie created a juxtaposition between something new and exotic for Europeans while at the same time reflecting the values of the 4,000 year old culture from which these objects came. 

Chinoiserie was not universally popular^[각주:55]. Some critics saw the style as "... a retreat from^[각주:56] reason and taste and a descent into^[각주:57] a morally^[각주:58] ambiguous world based on hedonism^[각주:59], sensation and values perceived to be^[각주:60] feminine. It was viewed as lacking the logic and reason upon which Antique art had been founded. Architect and author Robert Morris claimed that it "... consisted of mere whims^[각주:61] and chimera^[각주:62], without rules or order, it requires no fertility of genius to put into execution^[각주:63]." Those with a more archaeological view of^[각주:64] the East, considered the chinoiserie style, with its distortions and whimsical approach^[각주:65], to be a mockery of^[각주:66] the actual Chinese art and architecture. Finally, still others believed that an interest in chinoiserie indicated a pervading^[각주:67] "cultural confusion" in European society. 

Persistence after the 18th century^[각주:68]

Chinoiserie persisted into the 19th and 20th centuries but declined in popularity. There was a notable loss of interest in Chinese-inspired decor after the death in 1830 of^[각주:69] King George IV, a great proponent of the style. The First Opium War of 1839-1842 between Britain and China disrupted trade and caused a further decline of interest in the Oriental. China closed its doors to exports and imports and for many people chinoiserie became a fashion of the past^[각주:70]. 

As British-Chinese relations stabilized towards the end of^[각주:71] the 19th century, there was a revival of interest in chinoiserie. Prince Albert, for example, reallocated^[각주:72] many chinoiserie served to remind Britain of its former colonial glory that was rapidly fading with the modern era. 

Chinese porcelain 

From the Renaissance to the 18th century Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. One of the earliest successful attempts, for instance, was the Medici porcelain manufactured in Florence during the late-16th century, as the Casino of San Marco remained open from 1575-1587. Despite never being commercial in nature^[각주:73], the next major attempt to replicate Chinese porcelain was the soft-paste^[각주:74] manufactory at^[각주:75] Rouen in 1673, with Edme Poterat, widely reputed as creator of^[각주:76] the French soft-paste pottery tradition, opening his own factory in 1647. Efforts were eventually made to imitate hard-paste objects^[각주:77], which were held in high regard^[각주:78]. As such^[각주:79], the direct imitation of Chinese designs in faience^[각주:80] began in the late 17th century, was carried into European porcelain production, most naturally in tea wares^[각주:81], and peaked in the wave of rococo chinoiserie (c. 1740-1770). 

Earliest hints of chinoiserie appear in the early 17th century, in the arts of the nations with active East India Companies, Holland and England, then by the mid-17th century, in Portugal as well. Tin-glazed pottery made at^[각주:82] Delft and other Dutch towns adopted genuine blue-and-white Ming decoration from the early 17th century. After a book by Johan Nieuof was published the 150 pictures encouraged chinoiserie, and became especially popular in the 18th century. Early ceramic wares at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain naturally imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and tea wares. 

1. Chinoiserie ; English: /ʃinˈwɑːzri/ [본문으로]
2. decorative arts ; [명사] 장식 예술 [본문으로]
3. aesthetic ; 1. [C] 미적 특질, 미학(적 특질) ;; 미국식 [es|θetɪk] 영국식 [i:s|θetɪk ; es-] [본문으로]
4. derive from sth ; (다른 무엇에서) 나오다[파생되다], ~에서 유래하다 ;; 동의어 ; be derived from something ;; [본문으로]
5. anthropological ; [형용사] 인류학의 ;; 미국식 [æ̀nθrəpəlɑ́dƷikəl] 영국식 [-lɔ́-] [본문으로]
6. popularize ;[타동사] …을 통속화하다, 쉽게 만들다, 대중화하다; …을 보급시키다. [본문으로]
7. rise ; 1. INCREASE | [C] ~ (in sth) (수량・수준 등의) 증가[상승] [본문으로]
8. exuberant ; 1. 풍부한(abundant) ;; 2. 무성한, 번성한(luxuriant) ;; 3. 원기에 가득 찬; (기력·건강 따위가) 왕성한, 넘쳐흐르는 듯한(overflowing) [본문으로]
9. asymmetry ; [U] 1. 어울리지 않음, 불균형 ;; 2. (식물·수학) 비대칭 ;; 미국∙영국 [eisímətri,æ-] [본문으로]
10. stylized ; 양식화된, 정형화된 [본문으로]
11. mid-to-late ; 중반부의 시기부터 말기까지를 나타낸다. from mid to late에서 from을 지웠다고 보면 된다. 예를 들어, mid-to-late 19c 이라고 되어있으면 "19세기 중반부터 말까지" 라고 해석하면 된다. [본문으로]
12. popularity ; [U] 1. 대중성, 통속성; 유행. ;; 2. (…에 대한/…사이의) 인기, 평판[with, among]. [본문으로]
13. peak ; [자동사][V] 절정[최고조]에 달하다 [본문으로]
14. be associated with ; ~와 관련되다, 연관되다 [본문으로]
15. influx ; 1. 흘러듦, 흘러 들어가기(inflow) ; 유입물(流入物)(opp. efflux). ;; 2. 들어오기, 내도(來到)(entrance). ;; 3. 유입, 쇄도(殺到). [본문으로]
16. go[get, drop] out of fashion ; 유행하지 않게 되다 [본문으로]
17. neoclassical ; [주로 명사 앞에 씀] 신고전주의의 [본문으로]
18. gain popularity ; 인기를 얻다 [본문으로]
19. revival ; 2. [C , U] 부흥, 재유행 [본문으로]
20. phenomenon ; [NOUN] A phenomenon is something that is observed to happen or exist. [본문으로]
21. lacquer ; [U] 1. 래커 (도료); (한국·중국산(産)의) 옻칠. ;; 2. [집합적] 칠기. (또는 lacquerware) ;; 3. (매니큐어의) 에나멜; 《英》 헤어 스프레이. [본문으로]
22. Acapulco ; [명사] 아카풀코 ((멕시코 남서부 태평양 연안의 항구; 휴양지)) ;; 미국·영국 [æ̀kəpúlkou] [본문으로]
23. artisan ; 장인(匠人), 공장(工匠), 기능공; 직공, 기계공(mechanic) ;; 미국식 [|ɑ:rtəzn] 영국식 [|ɑ:tɪ|zӕn] [본문으로]
24. ceramist ; 도예가(potter); 도예 연구가; 요업가 ;; 미국식 [sərǽmist,sérəm-] 영국식 [sérə-] [본문으로]
25. popularization ; 통속화, 대중화, 평이화, 보급. [본문으로]
26. fascination with ; …에 매료됨, …에 대한 강한 흥미. [본문으로]
27. first-hand ; [명사 앞에만 씀] 직접 얻은[경험한] ;; 참고 ; second-hand [본문으로]
28. mystification ; [U]신비화; [U]어리둥절케 함; [C]속이기 ;; 미국∙영국 [mìstəfikéiʃən] [본문으로]
29. misinformation ; [U] 오보, 와전. [본문으로]
30. contribute to sth ; to help to cause something [본문으로]
31. mystification ; [U]신비화; [U]어리둥절케 함; [C]속이기 [본문으로]
32. represent ; [타동사] 4. …을 마음에 그리다, 마음에 떠올리다. ;; 5. …이라고 말하다, …을 기술하다, 말로 표현하다, 주장[단언]하다. ;; 6. …을 설명하다, 납득시키다[to]. [본문으로]
33. rich in ; …이 풍부한[많은]. [본문으로]
34. harmonic ; 2. 조화하는; 협화적인. [본문으로]
35. an ideal world ; 이상향(理想鄕) [본문으로]
36. reshape ; [타동사-자동사] 모양을 고치다, 다시 만들다, 새 형태를 취하다[취하게 하다]; 새 국면을 개척하다 [본문으로]
37. latter ; (참고: former) 1. (둘 중에서) 후자의; (나열된 것들 중에서) 마지막의 ;; 2. (기간・시기의) 후반의[끝 무렵의] ;; 미국∙영국 [|lӕtə(r)] [본문으로]
38. assimilate ; 1. [타동사][VN] (아이디어나 정보를) 완전히 이해하다[소화하다] ;; 3. [타동사][VN] [흔히 수동태로] ~ sth into/to sth (사상 등을) 흡수하다 ;; 미국∙영국 [ə|sɪməleɪt] [본문으로]
39. generic ; 1. 포괄적인, 총칭[통칭]의 [본문으로]
40. exoticism ; 1. [U](예술상의) 이국취미; 이국정서 ;; 2. 이국의 특유한 어법[표현] ;; 미국식 [ɪg|zɑ:tɪsɪzəm] 영국식 [ɪg|zɒtɪsɪzəm] [본문으로]
41. conceptualization ; [명사] 개념화 ; 개념적인 해석. [본문으로]
42. in reality ; 사실은[실제로는] ;; used to say that a situation is different from what has just been said or from what people believe [본문으로]
43. signify ; (-fied) (격식) 1. 의미하다(mean); (몸짓·언어·동작 등으로) 나타내다, 알리다, 표명하다; 발표하다 ;; 2. …의 전조가 되다, 예시(豫示)하다 [본문으로]
44. representative ; 3. 대표물; 견본, 표본; 전형 ((of)) [본문으로]
45. oeuvre ; (pl. oeuvres) (한 작가·예술가 등의) 일생의 일, 전 작업, 전 작품; (하나의) 예술 작품. ;; 미국∙영국 [|ɜ:vrə] [본문으로]
46. dissertation ; 1. 학술[학위] 논문(thesis), 박사 논문[about, on, concerning]. ;; 2. 논설, 논술. ;; ORIGIN ; Late Latin ; dissertatio ; ⇨ dissertate [본문으로]
47. gain[gather] momentum ; 탄력이 붙다, 세(勢)를 얻다 ;; 활기를 찾다, 번성하다 [본문으로]
48. unresting ; 쉬지 않는, 휴지하지 않는, 끊임없이 계속되는 ;; 침착하지 않은, 동요하고 있는 [본문으로]
49. transcription ; 1. [U] (구술된 내용 등을[의]) 글로 옮김[표기/인쇄(하기)] ;; [U] 필사(筆寫), 모사(模寫), 복사; 바꿔 씀, 전사(轉寫); [C] 바꿔 쓴 것, 사본 [본문으로]
50. preclude ; 1. [문어] 일어나지 않게 하다, 불가능하게 하다; 막다, 방지하다, 방해하다(prevent) ((from)) ;; 2. 배제하다, 제외하다(exclude) ;; ORIGIN ; Latin ; 「미리 닫다」의 뜻에서 [본문으로]
51. in particular ; 특히[특별히] [본문으로]
52. exquisitely ; [부사] 아주 아름답게, 절묘하게; 정교하게, 우아하게 [본문으로]
53. finished ; 2. <교양 등이> 완전한, 말할 나위 없는(accomplished); 세련된 [본문으로]
54. Versailles ; [명사] 베르사유 ((파리 서부의 궁전 소재지; 제1차 대전 후의 강화 조약 체결지)) ;; a city in N central France, near Paris: site of an elaborate royal residence built for Louis XIV; seat of the French kings (1682--1789). Pop: 85 726 (1999) ;; 미국∙영국 [vεərsái] [본문으로]
55. universally ; 1. 일반적으로, 누구에게서나 ;; 2. 보편적으로, 어디에서나 ;; 미국식 [|ju:nɪ|vɜ:rsəli] 영국식 [|ju:nɪ|vɜ:səli] [본문으로]
56. retreat ; [명사] 2. ESCAPE | [C , U] [주로 단수로] ~ (from/into sth) 도피 [본문으로]
57. descent ; 4. [U, C] 저하, 하락, 타락, 전락. ;; 5. 급습, 습격; (경찰 따위의) 돌연한 검색[수색], 일제 검색; 《구어》 갑작스런[불시] 방문[on, upon]. [본문으로]
58. morally ; [부사] 도덕[도의]적으로, 도덕적 원칙에 따라 [본문으로]
59. hedonism ; [명사] 쾌락[향락]주의 ;; 미국·영국 [|hi:dənɪzəm] [본문으로]
60. perceive ; (perceives[-z]; perceived; -ceiv·ing) 1. (오관(五官)으로) …을 지각하다, 인지하다, 알아채다. ;; 동의어 NOTICE ;; 2. …을 이해[양해]하다, 납득하다; 〔진상 따위〕를 간파하다; 깨닫다. [본문으로]
61. whim ; [C , U] (일시적인) 기분, 변덕 [본문으로]
62. chimera ; 2. 가공의 괴물; 근거 없는 환상; 망상(wild fancy) [본문으로]
63. carry into[put in(to)] execution ;; 실행하다 [본문으로]
64. archaeological ; 고고학적인, 고고학상의. (또는 archaeologic, archeologic(al)) [본문으로]
65. whimsical ; 1. (행동·의견 따위가) 변덕스러운, 즉흥적인, 종잡을 수 없는. ;; 2. 별난, 색다른; 묘한, 기묘한. ;; 3. 흔들리는, 일정하지 않은, 예측할 수 없는. [본문으로]
66. mockery ; (pl. -er·ies) 1. [[UC/]] 조롱, 놀림 ;; 2. [[C]] 조롱거리, 웃음거리 ;; 3. 가짜, 흉내낸 것, 모방 [본문으로]
67. pervading ; [형용사적] 만연한 ;; pervade ; [타동사][VN] (격식) 만연하다, (구석구석) 스며[배어]들다 [본문으로]
68. persistence ; 2. (없어지지 않고 오래 동안) 지속됨 [본문으로]
69. the death 와 of person 사이에 전치사 구를 넣어 활용한 것을 확인 [본문으로]
70. become a fashion ; 유행이 되다 [본문으로]
71. stabilize ; [자동사] 안정[고정]되다 ;; [타동사] 안정시키다, 고정시키다; <선박·항공기 등에> 안정 장치를 하다; 변동하지 않도록 하다 [본문으로]
72. reallocate ; [타동사][VN] ~ sth (to sb/sth) 재분배하다 [본문으로]
73. in nature ; 1. 사실상, 현실적으로 ;; 2. (《최상급의 강조》) 완전히, 더할 나위 없이; 《의문의 강조》 도대체; 《부정의 강조》 조금도 [본문으로]
74. soft-paste ; 연질 자기(軟質磁器): 유리 또는 석영사(石英砂)에 융제(融劑)를 혼합하여 저온에서 소성(成)한 자기. 프랑스명(名)은 pate tendre. [본문으로]
75. manufactory ; ((pl. -ries)) (고어) 제조소, 공장 ;; HELP ; factory가 일반적. [본문으로]
76. be reputed as ; ~라고 알려져있는, 평판이 있는 [본문으로]
77. hard-paste ; [NOUN] porcelain made with kaolin and petuntse, of Chinese origin and made in Europe from the early 18th century [본문으로]
78. be held in high regard ; 높은 평가를 받다 [본문으로]
79. as such ; 보통 말하는[엄밀한 의미의] 그런 ;; 1.in the usual sense or meaning of the word ;; 2.considering something only in theory, not in practice or in relation to a particular person or thing [본문으로]
80. faience ; [UC] 파양스 도자기 ((프랑스의 채색 도자기)) ;; 미국∙영국 [faiɑ́:ns,fei-] [본문으로]
81. tea ware ; Teaware is a broad international spectrum of equipment used in the brewing and consumption of tea [본문으로]
82. tin-glazed ; [명사] (도자기에) 주석 유약을 바른. [본문으로]