[Annotated] Haijin (海禁)

The Haijin(海禁) or sea ban was a series of related isolationist Chinese policies restricting private maritime trading and coastal settlement during most of the Ming dynasty and some of the Qing. First imposed to deal with Japanese piracy amid the mopping up of^[각주:1] Yuan partisans, the sea ban was completely counterproductive^[각주:2]: by the 16th century, piracy and smuggling were endemic^[각주:3] and mostly consisted of Chinese who had been dispossessed by the policy^[각주:4]. China's foreign trade was limited to irregular and expensive tribute missions^[각주:5], and resistance even to them among the Chinese bureaucracy led to the scrapping of Zheng He's fleets^[각주:6]. Piracy dropped to negligible levels^[각주:7] only upon the end of the policy in 1567, but a modified form was subsequently adopted by the Qing. This produced the Canton system of the Thirteen Factories, but also the opium smuggling that led to disastrous wars with Britain and other European powers in the 19th century. 

The policy was also mimicked by both Tokugawa Japan (as the Sakoku) and Joseon Korea, which became known as the "Hermit Kingdom^[각주:8]", before they were opened militarily in 1853 and 1876. 

Ming 

Background

The 14th century was a time of chaos throughout East Asia. The second bubonic plague^[각주:9] pandemic began in^[각주:10] Mongolia around 1330 and may have killed the majority of the population in Hebei and Shanxi and millions elsewhere. Another epidemic raged for^[각주:11] three years from 1351-1354. Existing revolts over^[각주:12] the government salt monopoly and severe floods along the Yellow River provoked the Red Turban Rebellion. The declaration of the Ming in 1368 did not end its wars with Mongol remnants under^[각주:13] Toghon Temur in the north and under the Prince of Liang in the south. King Gongmin of Korea had begun freeing himself from the Mongols as well, retaking his country's northern provinces^[각주:14], when a Red Turban invasion devastated the areas and laid waste to^[각주:15] Pyongyang. In Japan, Emperor Daigo II's Kenmu Restoration succeeded in overthrowing the Kamakura shogunate^[각주:16] but ultimately simply replaced them with the weaker Ashikaga^[각주:17]. 

The loose control over Japan's periphery^[각주:18] led to pirates setting up bases on the realm's outlying^[각주:19] islands, particularly Tsushima, Iki, and the Gotos. These "dwarf pirates" raided Japan^[각주:20] as well as Korea and China. 

Policy

As a rebel leader^[각주:21], Zhu Yuanzhang promoted foreign trade as a source of revenue. As the Hongwu Emperor, first of the Ming Dynasty, however, he issued the first sea ban in 1371. All foreign trade was to be conducted by official tribute missions, handled by representatives of the Ming Empire and its "vassal" states^[각주:22]. Private foreign trade was^[각주:23] made punishable by death, with the offender's family^[각주:24] and neighbors exiled from their homes. A few years later, in 1384, the Maritime Trade Intendancies at^[각주:25] Ningbo, Guangzhou, and Quanzhou were shuttered^[각주:26]. Ships, docks, and shipyards were destroyed and ports sabotaged with rocks and pine stakes^[각주:27]. Although the policy is now associated with imperial China generally, it was then at odds with^[각주:28] Chinese tradition, which had pursued foreign trade as a source of revenue and become particularly important under the Tang, Song, and Yuan. A 1613 edict^[각주:29] prohibited maritime trade between^[각주:30] the lands north and south of the Yangtze River, attempting to put a stop to captains^[각주:31] claiming to be heading to^[각주:32] Jiangsu and then diverting to Japan. 

Rationale 

Although the policy has generally been ascribed to^[각주:33] national defense against the pirates, it was so obviously counterproductive and yet carried on for so long that other explanations have been offered. The initial conception seems to have been to use the Japanese need for Chinese goods to force them to terms^[각주:34]. Parallels with^[각주:35] Song and Yuan measures^[각주:36] restricting outflows of^[각주:37] bullion^[각주:38] have led some to argue that it was intended to support the Hongwu Emperor's printing of fiat currency^[각주:39], whose use was continued by his successors as late as 1450. (1425, rampant^[각주:40] counterfeiting^[각주:41] and hyperinflation^[각주:42] meant people were already trading at about 0.014% of their original value.) Others  it was a side effect of a desire to elevate Confucian humaneness^[각주:43] (仁, ren) and eliminate greed from the realm's foreign relations or a ploy to weaken^[각주:44] the realm's southern subjects to^[각주:45] the benefit of the central government. Nonetheless, it may have been the case that the Hongwu Emperor prioritized protecting his state against^[각주:46] the Northern Yuan remnants, leaving the policy and its local enforcers^[각주:47] as the most he could accomplish^[각주:48] and his mention of them in his Ancestral Injunctions as responsible for their continuation. 

Effects 

The policy offered too little - decennial^[각주:49] tribute missions^[각주:50] comprising only two ships - as a reward for good behavior and enticement for^[각주:51] Japanese authorities to root out their smugglers^[각주:52] and pirates. The Hongwu Emperor's message to the Japanese that his army would "capture and exterminate^[각주:53] your bandits^[각주:54], head straight for your country, and put your king in bonds^[각주:55]" received the Ashikaga shogun's cheeky reply that^[각주:56] "your great empire may be able to invade Japan but our small state is not short of a strategy to defend ourselves". 

Although the sea ban left the Ming army free to extirpate^[각주:57] the remaining^[각주:58] Yuan loyalists^[각주:59] and secure China's borders, it tied up local resources. 74 coastal garrisons were^[각주:60] established from Guangzhou in Guandong to Shandong; under the Yongle Emperor^[각주:61], these outposts were^[각주:62] notionally^[각주:63] manned by^[각주:64] 110,000 subjects^[각주:65]. The loss of income from taxes on trade contributed to^[각주:66] chronic funding difficulties throughout the Ming, particularly for Zhejiang and Fujian provinces. By impoverishing^[각주:67] and provoking both coastal Chinese and Japanese against the regime, it increased the problem it was purporting to solve^[각주:68]. The initial wave of Japanese pirates had been independently dealt with by Jeong Mong-ju and Imagawa Sadayo, who returned their booty^[각주:69] and slaves to Korea; Ashikaga Yoshimitsu delivered 20 more to China in 1405, which boiled them alive in a cauldron in Ningbo. However, the raids on China continued, most grievously under the Jiajing Emperor. By the 16th century, the "Japanese", "dwarf", and "eastern barbarian" pirates of the Jiajing wokou raids were mostly non-Japanese.

Nonetheless, because the sea ban was added by the Hongwu Emperor^[각주:70] to his Ancestral Injunctions^[각주:71], it continued to be broadly enforced through most of the rest of his dynasty. For the next two centuries, the rich farmland of the south and the military theaters of the north were linked almost solely by the Jinghang Canal. Bribery^[각주:72] and disinterest^[각주:73] occasionally permitted more leeway^[각주:74], as when the Portuguese began trading at Guangzhou (1517), Ningpo ("Liampo"), and Quangzhou ("Chincheu"), but crackdowns also occurred^[각주:75], as with the expulsion of^[각주:76] the Portuguese in the 1520s, on the islands off Ningbo and Zhangzhou in 1547, or at Yuegang in 1549. The Portuguese were permitted to settle at Macao in 1557, but only after several years of helping the Chinese suppress^[각주:77] piracy. 

Piracy dropped to negligible levels only after the general abolition of the policy in^[각주:78] 1567 upon the ascension of^[각주:79] the Longqing Emperor^[각주:80] and at the urging of^[각주:81] the governor of Fujian. Chinese merchants were then permitted to engage in all foreign trade except with Japan or involving weapons or other contraband goods^[각주:82]; these included iron, sulfur^[각주:83], and copper. The number of foreign traders was capped by^[각주:84] a license and quota system^[각주:85]; no trading could take them away from China for longer than a year. Maritime trade intendancies were reestablished at Guangzhou and Ningbo in 1599, and Chinese merchants turned Yuegang (modern Haicheng, Fujian) into a thriving port. The end of the sea ban did not mark an imperial change of heart^[각주:86], however, so much as a recognition that the weakness of the later Ming state made it impossible to continue the prohibition. The state continued to regulate trade as heavily as^[각주:87] it could, and foreigners were restricted to doing business through^[각주:88] approved agents^[각주:89], with prohibitions against any direct business with ordinary Chinese. Accommodations could be made^[각주:90], but were slow in coming: the merchants of Yuegang were trading heavily with the Spanish within a year of Maynila's 1570 conquest by Martin de Goiti but it wasn't until 1589 that the throne approved the city's requests for more merchant licenses to expand the trade. Fu Yuanchu's 1639 memorial to^[각주:91] the throne made the case that trade between Fujian and Dutch Taiwan had made the ban entirely unworkable^[각주:92]. 

Qing

Background

As the Qing expanded south following their victory at Shanhai Pass, the Southern Ming were supported by the Zheng clan. Zheng Zhilong surrendered the passes through Zhejiang in exchange for a wealthy retirement^[각주:93], but his son Zheng Chenggong - better known by his Hokkien honorific^[각주:94] Koxinga - continued to resist from Xiamen and then, after wresting its control from^[각주:95] the Dutch, Taiwan. His dynasty then developed it as the independent state of Tungning, but were driven from their mainland bases in 1661.

Policy 

The Qing regent Prince Rui resumed the sea ban in^[각주:96] 1647, but it was not effective until a more severe order followed in 1661 upon the ascension of^[각주:97] the Kangxi Emperor. In an evacuation known as^[각주:98] the "Great Clearance" or "Frontier Shift", coastal residents of Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, and parts of Shandong were required to^[각주:99] destroy their property and move inland^[각주:100] 30-50 li (about 16-26 km or 10-16 mi), with Qing soldiers erecting boundary markers^[각주:101] and enforcing the death penalty on those beyond it. Ships were destroyed, and foreign trade was again limited to that passing through Macao. Checks and adjustments were made the following year, and the inhabitants of five counties - Panyu, Shunde, Sinhui, Dongguan, and Zhongshan - moved again the year after that. Following numerous high-level memorials, the evacuation was no longer enforced after 1669. In 1684, following the destruction of Tungning, other bans were lifted^[각주:102]. The year after that, customs offices were established in^[각주:103] Guangzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, and SongJiang to deal with foreign trade. 

Repressive^[각주:104] Qing policies such as the queue caused^[각주:105] Chinese traders to emigrate in such large numbers^[각주:106], however, that the Kangxi Emperor began to fear the military implications^[각주:107]. The immigrant community in Jakarta was estimated at 100,000 and rumors circulated that^[각주:108] a Ming heir was living on Luzon. A ban on trade in the "Southern Ocean" followed in 1717, with tighter port inspections^[각주:109] and travel restrictions. Emigrants were ordered to return to China within the next three years upon penalty of death; those emigrating in future^[각주:110] were to face the same punishment. 

Legal trade in the South China Sea was resumed in 1727, but the East India Company's discovery that the prices and duties at Ningbo were both much lower than those at Guangzhou prompted them to^[각주:111] begin shifting their trade north from 1755 to 1757. The Qianlong Emperor's attempt to discourage this through higher fees failed; in the winter of 1757, he declared that - effective the next year - Guangzhou (then romanized as^[각주:112] "Canton") was to be the only Chinese port permitted to foreign traders, beginning the Canton System, with its Cohong and Thirteen Factories. 

Effects

The initial Qing sea ban curtailed Koxinga's influence on the Chinese mainland and ended with his state's defeat, which brought Taiwan into the Qing Empire. 

Nonetheless, it was quite harmful to the Chinese themselves, as documented in governors' and viceroys'^[각주:113] memorials to the throne^[각주:114]. Even before the Kangxi Emperor's restrictions, Jin Fu's 1659 memorial to the throne argued that the ban on foreign trade was limiting China's access to silver, harmfully restricting the money supply, and that lost trading opportunities cost Chinese merchants 7 or 8 million taels^[각주:115] a year. The policies revived rebellions and piracy along the coast. The Great Clearance was completely disruptive to^[각주:116] China's southern coasts. Of the roughly 16,000 residents of Xin'an County (roughly modern Shenzhen and Hong Kong) who were driven inland in 1661, only 1,648 were recorded returning in 1669. Powerful typhoons that year and in 1671 further destroyed local communities and discouraged resettlement^[각주:117]. When trade restrictions were released, Fujian and Guangdong saw enormous outflows of migrants. The conflicts between the former residents and the newcomers^[각주:118] such as the Hakka provoked lingering^[각주:119] feuds that^[각주:120] erupted into^[각주:121] full-scale war in^[각주:122] the 1850s and '60s and that fueled Guangdong's piracy into the 20th century. 

The restrictions imposed by the Qianlong Emperor that established the Canton System were highly lucrative for Guanzhou's Cohong - the merchant Howqua became one of the world's wealthiest individuals - and normalized Guangzhou's tax base and inflow of foreign silver. By restricting imports mostly to bullion, however, it created strong pressure on the British - for whom tea had become the national drink over the course of the 17th century^[각주:123] - to find any means possible to adjust the balance of trade. This turned out to be smuggled^[각주:124] Indian opium^[각주:125], which became so lucrative and important that the viceroy Lin Zexu's vigorous^[각주:126] enforcement of^[각주:127] existing laws against it prompted the First Opium War and the beginning of the unequal treaties that restricted Qing sovereignty in^[각주:128] the 19th century. The 1842 Treaty of Nanking is generally taken to have ended China's isolation, with the opening of the ports of Xiamen ("Amoy"), Fuzhou ("Fuchow"), Ningbo ("Ningpo"), and Shanghai, but legal trade continued to be limited to specified ports to^[각주:129] the end of the dynasty. 

1. mopping-up ; [형용사] 총정리의, 끝마무리의; 〈군사〉 소탕하는. [본문으로]
2. counterproductive ; [형용사] (대개 명사 앞에는 안 씀) 역효과를 낳는 ;; 참고 ; productive [본문으로]
3. endemic ; [형용사] (또는 endemical, endemial) (질병 따위가) 어떤 지방 (사람들) 특유의, (지방의) 고유의[in, to]; (생물이) 어떤 지방 특유의, 토종의; 특정 분야[환경]에 만연한[일상적인]. ;; 미국∙영국 [en|demɪk] [본문으로]
4. dispossess ; [타동사][VN] [주로 수동태로] ~ sb (of sth) (격식) (재산을) 빼앗다[몰수하다] [본문으로]
5. tribute ; 3. [U , C] 공물(특히 과거 속국이 종주국에 바치던 것) [본문으로]
6. scrapping ; (법률) 파기; 폐기 [본문으로]
7. negligible ; [형용사] (중요성・규모가 작아) 무시해도 될 정도의 [본문으로]
8. Hermit Kingdom ; [the ~] 은자(隱者)의 왕국 ((중국 외는 문호를 닫았던 1637-1876의 조선)) [본문으로]
9. bubonic plague ; [U] (또한 the plague) 림프절 페스트 ;; 미국식 [bju:|bɑ:nɪk] 영국식 [bju:|bɒnɪk |pleɪg] [본문으로]
10. pandemic ; [명사] 전국[전 세계]적인 유행병 [본문으로]
11. a rage for ; …의 대유행. [본문으로]
12. revolt ; 1. 반항, 반역, 반란, 폭동(rebellion, insurrection). ;; 2. 반항심, 반항적 태도. ;; 3. 싫증, 염오, 반감, 불쾌(repugnance, disgust). [본문으로]
13. remnant ; 3. 남은 물건[자취], 유물, 유적(relic, last trace). [본문으로]
14. retake ; (re・took / -'tUk / , re・taken / -'teIkən /), [vn] 1. (특히 군대가) (도시 등을) 탈환하다 [본문으로]
15. lay waste to ; 파괴하다; 황폐케 하다; …를 파멸시키다(문자 그대로도 또 비유적으로도 씀) ;; destroy [본문으로]
16. overthrow ; [타동사][VN] (over・threw / -'Truː / over・thrown / -'TrəUn ; 美 -'TroUn /) (지도자・정부를) 타도하다[전복시키다] [본문으로]
17. replace A with[by] B ; A를 B로 바꾸다 [본문으로]
18. periphery ; (pl. -ies), [주로 단수로], (격식) 1. (어떤 범위의) 주변 ;; 2. (덜 중요한) 주변부 [본문으로]
19. outlying ; [형용사] (명사 앞에만 씀) 외딴, 외진 [본문으로]
20. raid ; 3. (무엇을 훔치기 위해 건물 등에) 침입하다 [본문으로]
21. rebel ; 1. 반역자 ;; 2. (조직・정당 등의 내부의) 반대자[저항 세력] ;; 3. (규칙・일반 통념 등에) 반항적인 사람, 반항아 [본문으로]
22. vassal state ; 속국(屬國). ;; vassal ; 1. 봉신(봉건 군주에게서 봉토를 받은 신하) ;; 2. 종속 국가, 속국 ; [명사] 미국∙영국 [|vӕsl] [본문으로]
23. private foreign trade ; 민간 무역 [본문으로]
24. offender ; 1. 범죄자 ;; 참고 ; first offender, sex offender ;; 2. 나쁜 짓을 하는 사람[것] [본문으로]
25. intendancy ; [UC](pl. -cies) 1. intendant의 직[지위, 신분, 관할구] ;; 2. [집합적] 감독자 ;; 3. 지방 행정구 [본문으로]
26. shutter ; [타동사] 2. 〔가게 따위〕를 (일과를 마치고) 닫다; (영구히) 폐점하다. [본문으로]
27. stake ; 1. 말뚝, 막대기. [본문으로]
28. at odds ; (…와) 다투어, 불화하여; (…와) 조화(調和)하지 못하는[with] [본문으로]
29. edict ; 칙령(勅令), 포고(decree) ; 명령(command). ;; 미국∙영국 [|i:dɪkt] [본문으로]
30. maritime trade ; 연해 무역, 해운업 [본문으로]
31. put[give] a stop to sth ; …을 멈추다, 중지[정지]시키다, 끝내다 [본문으로]
32. head to ; ~로 향하다 [본문으로]
33. ascribe ; 1. <원인·동기·기원 등을> …에 돌리다(attribute); <결과 등을> …의 탓으로 돌리다(impute) ((to)); <예술 작품·공적·발명 등을> (사람·사건·시대)의 것으로 하다 [본문으로]
34. to terms ; 항복[승복]시키다, 따르게 하다 ;; 참고 ; bring a person to terms ; 항복[승복]시키다, 따르게 하다 [본문으로]
35. parallel ; 2. [C] [주로 복수로] 유사점 [본문으로]
36. measure ; 9. [보통 pl.] 수단, 대책, 조치 ;; 10. 법안; 법령, 조례 [본문으로]
37. outflow ; 유출(물); 유출량; (감정 따위의) 분출 [본문으로]
38. bullion ; [U] 금괴[은괴]들; (엄청난 양의) 금[은] ;; 미국∙영국 [|bʊliən] [본문으로]
39. fiat money ; 미국·영국 [|fi:ӕt;|faɪӕt] ;; Fiat money is a currency without intrinsic value that has been established as money, often by government regulation. Fiat money does not have use value, and has value only because a government maintains its value, or because parties engaging in exchange agree on its value.[1] It was introduced as an alternative to commodity money and representative money. Commodity money is created from a good, often a precious metal such as gold or silver, which has uses other than as a medium of exchange (such a good is called a commodity). Representative money is similar to fiat money, but it represents a claim on a commodity (which can be redeemed to a greater or lesser extent) ;; [본문으로]
40. rampant ; 1. (나쁜 것이) 걷잡을 수 없는, 만연[횡행]하는 [본문으로]
41. counterfeit ; [타동사][VN] 위조[모조]하다 ;; 참고 ; forge [본문으로]
42. hyperinflation ; [명사] 초인플레이션, 극심한 인플레이션 [본문으로]
43. humaneness ; [명사] 인정이 있음; 고상함. [본문으로]
44. ploy ; 1. [구어] (상대를 기만·제압하기 위한) 책략, 계략(ruse, gambit). ;; 2. [英구어] 계획; 기업; 일. ;; 3. [英구어] 희롱하기, 장난치기; 놀이, 취미. [본문으로]
45. subject ; 6. OF COUNTRY | (특히 군주국의) 국민, 신하 [본문으로]
46. prioritize ; 2. [타동사][VN] (격식) 우선적으로 처리하다 [본문으로]
47. enforcer ; [명사] 집행자(특히 정부 내에서 업무 등이 실행되도록 하는 사람) [본문으로]
48. accomplish ; [타동사][VN] 완수하다, 성취하다, 해내다 [본문으로]
49. decennial ; 십 년간의, 십 년마다의. ;; 미국∙영국 [diséniəl] [본문으로]
50. tribute ; 3. [U , C] 공물(특히 과거 속국이 종주국에 바치던 것) ;; 미국∙영국 [|trɪbju:t] [본문으로]
51. enticement ; [U] 유혹, 꾐; [C] 유혹하는 것, 미끼; [U] 매력 [본문으로]
52. root out ; [동사] 캐내다, 찾아내다; 뿌리째 뽑다, 근절시키다, 소탕하다. ;; 동의어 ; uncover, dig out; eradicate, exterminate. [본문으로]
53. exterminate ; [타동사][VN] 몰살[전멸]시키다 ;; 미국식 [ɪk|stɜ:rmɪneɪt] 영국식 [ɪk|stɜ:mɪneɪt] [본문으로]
54. bandit ; [명사] (길에서 여행객을 노리는) 노상강도 [본문으로]
55. in bonds ; 감금[속박]되어 [본문으로]
56. cheeky ; [형용사] cheek・ier , cheeki・est (英 비격식) 건방진, 까부는 [본문으로]
57. extirpate ; [타동사][VN] (격식) (나쁘거나 원치 않는 것을) 제거하다[없애다] ;; 미국식 [|ekstərpeɪt] 영국식 [|ekstəpeɪt] [본문으로]
58. remaining ; [형용사] (명사 앞에만 씀) 남아 있는, 남은 ;; 참고 ; remain [본문으로]
59. loyalist ; 1. (특히 변혁기의) 충신, 현 체제 지지자 [본문으로]
60. garrison ; 수비대, 주둔군, (수비대가 지키는) 요새, 주둔지. ;; 미국∙영국 [|gӕrɪsn] [본문으로]
61. the Yongle Emperor ; (인물명) 영락제(1360년~1424년) ;; the third emperor of the Ming dynasty in China, reigning from 1402 to 1424. [본문으로]
62. outpost ; 1. [군사] 전초; 전초 부대[기지]; 주둔 기지 ;; 2. 변경(邊境)의 식민지[거류지] [본문으로]
63. notionally ; [부사] 개념상, 관념상, 개념[관념]적으로; 추상적으로, 순이론적으로; 비현실적으로; 상상적으로, 공상(空想)으로, 가공으로. ;; 흐름상 "대략, (이론적으로) 추정하건대" 정도의 의미로 보임 [본문으로]
64. man ; [타동사][VN] (-nn-) (어떤 장소・기계에서[를]) 일하다[담당하다]; …에 인원을 배치[제공]하다 [본문으로]
65. subject ; 7. 백성, 국민; 신하, 부하; 피지배자 [본문으로]
66. contribute to ; to help to cause something [본문으로]
67. impoverish ; 1. 빈곤[가난]하게 하다 ;; 2. (질을) 떨어뜨리다[저하시키다] [본문으로]
68. purport ; 2. (서류 등이) …이라는 뜻으로 생각되다(seem to signify), …이라고 주장하다(profess, claim) (to do). [본문으로]
69. booty ; 1. [U]《집합적》 (전쟁중의) 노획물; 약탈품; [C](하나의) 노획물, 강탈물 ;; . 2. [U] (사업 따위의) 벌이, 이득, 이익. ;; 3. 상, 상금, 상품. [본문으로]
70. the Hongwu Emperor ; (인물명) 홍무제(1328년~1398년) ;; the founding emperor of China's Ming dynasty. [본문으로]
71. injunction ; 1. ~ (against sb) (법원의) 명령 ; 참고 ; restraining order ;; 2. (격식) (권한을 지닌 사람의) 경고[명령] [본문으로]
72. bribery ; [U] 뇌물 수수 [본문으로]
73. disinterest ; [U] 이해 관계[사리사욕]가 없음; 무관심; 불이익 ;; [U] 사심 없음, 이해 관계가 없음; 공평무사; 무관심, 냉담. [본문으로]
74. leeway ; [U] (무엇을 자신이 원하는 대로 하거나 변경할 수 있는) 자유[재량] ;; 미국∙영국 [|li:weɪ] [본문으로]
75. crackdown ; [명사] ~ (on sb/sth) 엄중 단속, 강력 탄압 [본문으로]
76. expulsion ; [~ (from…)] 1. [U , C] (어떤 장소에서의) 축출[추방] ;; 2. [U , C] 퇴학, (조직에서의) 제명[축출] ;; 3. [U] (격식) 배출, 방출 [본문으로]
77. suppress ; [vn] 1. (보통 못마땅함) (정부・통치자 등이) 진압하다 [본문으로]
78. abolition ; [U] (법률・제도・조직의) 폐지 [본문으로]
79. ascension ; 1. [U] 상승(ascent); 승진; 즉위, 등극(登極). [본문으로]
80. the Longqing Emperor ; (인물명) 융경제(1537년~1572년) ;; the 13th emperor of the Ming dynasty of China from 1567 to 1572 [본문으로]
81. at the urging of ; ~의 재촉으로 [본문으로]
82. contraband ; [형용사] (수출입) 금지[금제]의 [본문으로]
83. sulfur (sulfurate) ; 1. (유)황(黃) (비금속원소; 기호 S, 원자번호 16) ;; 미국∙영국 [sʌ́lfər] [본문으로]
84. cap ;[타동사] 2. LIMIT MONEY | [흔히 수동태로] (특히 英) (액수의) 한도를 정하다 [본문으로]
85. quota system ; [the ~] (수입액·이민수 등의) 할당 제도, 쿼터제 [본문으로]
86. a change of heart ; 심경의 변화 [본문으로]
87. regulate ; 1. 규제[통제/단속]하다 [본문으로]
88. be restricted to sth ; ~로 제한되다 [본문으로]
89. approved ; [형용사] 인가된; 입증된, 정평 있는, 공인된 [본문으로]
90. accommodation ; 3. [C , U] (격식) 합의; 협상 [본문으로]
91. memorial ; 1. 기념물, 기념관, 기념비; 기념일[행사, 식] [본문으로]
92. unworkable ; 1. (계획 등이) 실행[실시]할 수 없는, 비실제적인(impractical). ;; 2. (기계가) 움직이지 않는, 운전할 수 없는. [본문으로]
93. in exchange for ; ~대신의, 교환으로 [본문으로]
94. honorific ; [형용사] (격식) 존경을 나타내는, 경칭의 ;; HELP ;; honorific앞에는 a가 아니라 an을 쓴다. [본문으로]
95. wrest ; 3. <정보·생계·동의 등을> 캐[짜]내다(wring), 억지로 얻어내다(extract), 노력하여 얻다 ((out of, from)) [본문으로]
96. resume ; (격식) 1. 재개하다[되다], 다시 시작하다[되다] [본문으로]
97. ascension ; 1. [U] 상승(ascent); 승진; 즉위, 등극(登極). [본문으로]
98. evacuation ; 3. (위험 지역으로부터의) 피난, 소개; 인도(引渡), 퇴거. ;; 4. (군사) 철퇴, 철수; 후송. [본문으로]
99. be required to ; ~하라는 요구를 받다, ~하도록 요구되다 [본문으로]
100. inland ; [형용사] 1. (바다·국경에서 먼) 오지의, 내륙의 ;; 2. 국내의, 내국(內國)의, 내지의 ;; [부사] 내륙으로[에], 국내로[에] [본문으로]
101. boundary marker ; [명사] (국토계획학) 경계 표지(境界標識) [본문으로]
102. lift ; 4. REMOVE LAW/RULE | [타동사][VN] (제재를) 풀다[해제/폐지하다] [본문으로]
103. customs office ; 세관 (사무소) ;; customs ; [pl.], (참고: excise) 1. (英 또한 Customs and Excise , 美 또한 US Customs Service) 보통 Customs 세관(정부 기관) ;; 2. (공항・항구의) 세관 (통과소) ;; 3. 관세 [본문으로]
104. repressive ; 1. (정부 체제가) 억압적인, 탄압하는 [본문으로]
105. queue ; 1. 변발(辯髮), 땋아 늘인 머리(pigtail). ;; 2. 차례를 기다리는 줄(waiting line). [본문으로]
106. emigrate ; [자동사] (타국으로) 이주하다, 이민하다; (다른 주 등으로) 전출하다(cf. IMMIGRATE) ;; 동의어 ; migrate ;; 미국∙영국 [|emɪgreɪt] [본문으로]
107. implication ; 2. [U] 연루, 연좌, 말려들기[in]; (보통 implications) 밀접한 관계; 영향, (예상된) 결과[for]. ;; 3. [U] 뒤엉키게 함, 얽힘, 분규. [본문으로]
108. circulate ; 2. (소문 등이[을]) 유포되다[유포하다] [본문으로]
109. inspection ; [U , C] 1. (공식적으로 학교・공장 등을 방문하여 하는) 사찰[순시] ;; 2. (특히 모든 것이 제대로 되어 있는지 확인하기 위한) 점검[검사/검토] [본문으로]
110. in future ; 앞으로는, 이후에 [본문으로]
111. prompt ; 1. (사람에게 어떤 결정을 내리도록・어떤 일이 일어나도록) 하다[촉발하다] [본문으로]
112. romanize ; 3. [R-, r-] 로마글자[자체]로 쓰다[인쇄하다], 로마글자로 고쳐 쓰다. ;; Romanization is the conversion of writing from a different writing system to the Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, and combinations of both. Transcription methods can be subdivided into phonemic transcription, which records the phonemes or units of semantic meaning in speech, and more strict phonetic transcription, which records speech sounds with precision. [본문으로]
113. viceroy ; [명사] (흔히 직함으로 쓰여) (식민지의) 총독 ;; 미국·영국 [|vaɪsrɔɪ] [본문으로]
114. memorial ; 2. (법률) 건의서, 청원[진정]서. ;; 3. (외교상의) 비공식 문서, 각서. ;; 4. (memorials) 기록, 연대기. [본문으로]
115. tael ; 1. 양(兩) ((중국 등의 형량(衡量) 단위; 보통 37.7 그램)) ;; 2. [역사] 양 ((중국의 옛 화폐 단위; 은 1/3 온스)) ;; 미국∙영국 [téil] [본문으로]
116. disruptive ; 분열[붕괴]시키는; 분열로 생긴, 분열성의. [본문으로]
117. resettlement ; [NOUN] Resettlement is the process of moving people to a different place to live, because they are no longer allowed to stay in the area where they used to live. [본문으로]
118. newcomer ; 새로 온 사람, 새 사람; (…분야의) 신참자, 초심자[to, in]. [본문으로]
119. lingering ; [형용사] (쉬 끝나거나 사라지지 않고) 오래 끄는[가는] [본문으로]
120. feud ; [UC](두 집안의) 불화, (몇 대에 걸치는) 숙한(宿恨); [C](일반적으로) 반목, 다툼 ;; 미국∙영국 [fju:d] [본문으로]
121. erupt ; 2. [자동사][V] ~ (into sth) (갑자기 폭력적으로) 분출되다[터지다] ;; 3. ~ (in/into sth) (강한 감정을, 특히 고함과 함께) 터뜨리다[폭발하다] [본문으로]
122. a total[full-scale] war ; 전면전 [본문으로]
123. over[in] the course of ; (기간을 나타내는 표현과 함께 쓰여) …동안 [본문으로]
124. smuggle ; [타동사][VN + adv. / prep.] 밀수하다, 밀반입[출]하다 [본문으로]
125. Indian opium ; [명사] (생약학) 인도 아편 [본문으로]
126. vigorous ; 4. <작용·효과 등이> 강력한, 강한 ;; 미국∙영국 [|vɪgərəs] [본문으로]
127. enforcement ; 1. (법률의) 시행, 집행 ;; 2. (복종 등의) 강제 ;; 3. (의견 등의) 강조 [본문으로]
128. sovereignty ; [U]주권, 통치권; [C]독립국 ;; 미국식 [|sɑ:vrənti] 영국식 [|sɒvrənti] [본문으로]
129. specified ; [형용사] 명시된, 지정한, 지정된 [본문으로]