[Annotated] China's ethnic-Korean enclaves have become less Korean

An exodus of^[각주:1] Korean-Chinese has changed them

Tall jars filled with rice beer await customers^[각주:2] by the riverside in^[각주:3] Yanji, a city in north-eastern China close to the border with North Korea. Servers in aprons^[각주:4] fork out spicy salads from^[각주:5] rows of red plastic bowls. Atop^[각주:6] a nearby trestle table^[각주:7] a butcher has laid out^[각주:8] three skinned dogs^[각주:9]. The early-morning market exudes^[각주:10] the distinctive character of^[각주:11] Yanbian, an ethnic-Korean enclave of which^[각주:12] Yanji is the administrative^[각주:13] heart^[각주:14]. Youngsters^[각주:15] chatter in^[각주:16] Mandarin and Korean. Shop hoardings are^[각주:17] written in both languages. 

Yanbian is the biggest of two ethnic-Korean areas on^[각주:18] China's side of the border. But its Korean-ness has faded over the past three decades^[각주:19]. A stallholder who^[각주:20] gives his surname as^[각주:21] Piao (Park In Korean) explains that his grown-up nieces^[각주:22] and nephews have all moved to Japan or South Korea, where he thinks they can earn three times more money. He is sure that his young daughter, who is spending her summer holiday helping at the market, will eventually choose to leave, too. The way things are going, he reckons^[각주:23], Yanbian's Korean community will one day disappear. 

Koreans began moving into China in the second half of the 19th century^[각주:24]. The early migrants were victims of floods^[각주:25] and other disasters that had made northern parts of the peninsula unfit for farming^[각주:26]. Later generations fled^[각주:27] the Japanese occupation of Korea^[각주:28], which began in 1910. When the Japanese army eventually followed the refugees north - in 1932 it incorporated^[각주:29] a large swathe of^[각주:30] north-east China into a puppet state^[각주:31] called Manchukuo^[각주:32] - the colonial^[각주:33] authorities^[각주:34] encouraged more Koreans to move into sparsely^[각주:35] populated areas of^[각주:36] the new dominion^[각주:37]. As it turned out, Korean militias played an important role in^[각주:38] kicking the Japanese out in 1945. Later they sided with^[각주:39] the Chinese Communist Party in China's civil war. After it seized power in^[각주:40] 1949, the party recognized Korean-Chinese as an ethnic minority^[각주:41] and gave them special rights in their enclaves of Yanbian and the county of Changbai, both in Jilin province. These included permission to use Korean as an official language and promote it in schools. The two prefectures are^[각주:42] officially designated as "autonomous^[각주:43]" (in practice they are not at all so^[각주:44]). Yanbian covers an area bigger than the island of Taiwan^[각주:45]. 

During the 1960s some Korean-Chinese moved back to communist-ruled North Korea, which for a while seemed alluring^[각주:46] by comparison^[각주:47]. Today Korean-Chinese are among the more prosperous of^[각주:48] the country's ethnic minorities. A turning-point came in^[각주:49] 1992, when China and South Korea opened full diplomatic relations^[각주:50]. This encouraged big South Korean firms to set up operations in^[각주:51] China. These often preferred to recruit Korean-speaking Chinese. A paper by^[각주:52] Choi Woogill of Sun Moon University in South Korea says that many young people from Yanbian found white-collar jobs in such businesses, often in cities such as Beijing and Shanghai, far from their hometowns. 

A far greater number of Korean-Chinese began heading abroad to seek their fortunes^[각주:53]. Of around 1.8m of them, about 1m are living outside China, with as many as 700,000 in South Korea alone. Perhaps as few as half a million remain in China's north-east, which once was home to all but^[각주:54] a handful of them^[각주:55]. 

The outflow^[각주:56] proved an economic boon for^[각주:57] Yanji. Money sent back by the migrants to their relatives in the city helped to make it livelier^[각주:58] and more affluent than many other places in^[각주:59] China's north-east, a center of state-owned heavy industry that in recent years as often been described as a "rustbelt^[각주:60]". A taxi driver belonging to China's main ethnic group, the Han, says that there are now hardly any ethnic Koreans driving cabs. He guesses that they are no longer attracted by the possible earnings^[각주:61]. 

But while Korean-Chinese have been gaining in wealth^[각주:62], their enclaves have been withering culturally^[각주:63]. The proportion of^[각주:64] ethnic-Koreans in Yanbian has fallen from more than three-fifths in 1949 to slightly more than one-third today. The exodus has been particularly evident in^[각주:65] the countryside^[각주:66], where - as often across China - farmers have been abandoning the fields in favor of better-earning work in the cities. The number of Korean-language schools has been plummeting^[각주:67] amid a shortage of teachers^[각주:68] and students. The departures have split families^[각주:69]. Some 60-80% of ethnic-Korean children in Yanbian live apart from at least one parent^[각주:70], according to Mr Choi. 

For the government, this is a mixed blessing^[각주:71]. Officials in Yanbian want the area to maintain its Korean character, which is an attraction for tourists. But the out-migration^[각주:72] also helps to dilute the numbers of^[각주:73] ethnic Koreans along the border. In their book 'China on the Edge", Carla Freeman and Drew Thompson describe how, in the 2000s, some Chinese officials were wary of attracting South Korean investors to^[각주:74] Yanbian, fearing they were treating it as Korean territory. South Korean nationalists sometimes refer to the area as the "third Korea". 

The Communist Party is mindful of claims by^[각주:75] fringe nationalist groups in^[각주:76] South Korea that Yanbian is Korean territory that ought one day to be reclaimed^[각주:77]. Such people argue that border agreements signed by^[각주:78] China in 1909 with Japanese colonialists and in 1962 with North Korea should be annulled^[각주:79], because they were negotiated with^[각주:80] illegitimate governments^[각주:81], as the nationalists see it. 

No dual loyalty here^[각주:82]

These opinions do not appear to be shared in Yanbian itself. Few Korean-Chinese residents there say there is any serious conflict between their Korean ethnicity and their loyalty to China, of which they are citizens. But the party probably worries that this view could change should Yanbian's ethnic make-up^[각주:83] be altered by^[각주:84] a large influx of^[각주:85] North Korean refugees - or if the bankrupt^[각주:86] prison-state that lurks next door^[각주:87] were to collapse and a unified^[각주:88], rich and attractive Korea were to emerge. 

China's anxieties about^[각주:89] Korean nationalism may explain its efforts, beginning in the early 2000s, to establish the Chinese-ness of the border area^[각주:90] by funding new research into its history^[각주:91]. There ensued^[각주:92] an arcane^[각주:93] but fiery debate between^[각주:94] Chinese and Korean experts over whether^[각주:95] the kingdom of Goguryeo, the territory of which straddled northern Korea^[각주:96] and north-eastern China between the first and seventh centuries, was mostly Korean or Chinese in nature^[각주:97]. Some nationalists in South Korea accused China of using its version of history to expand^[각주:98] its territorial claims^[각주:99], perhaps to justify the grabbing of territory in North Korea to act as^[각주:100] a buffer zone^[각주:101] should the regime there fall apart^[각주:102]. 

For the moment^[각주:103], however, China's main worry on its side of the border^[각주:104] is about the economy. Last year GDP growth in Yanbian was only 3.3%, less than half the national rate. If North Korea could resolve conflicts over^[각주:105] its nuclear programme and become more open to foreign business, "every inch of soil" in Yanbian would "turn to gold", says Jin Qiangyi, a Korean-Chinese academic at Yanbian University. 

Should this happen, plenty of far-flung Korean-Chinese^[각주:106] would return to the border area. But few people in Yanji are holding their breath^[각주:107]. An ethnic Korean relaxing in a park says any real change on the peninsula might take another 30 years or more. Such a scenario worries Mr Jin. By then^[각주:108], he says, China's globetrotting^[각주:109] ethnic Koreans may have been gone too long to be tempted home at all. 

1. exodus ; [sing.] ~ (from…) (to…) (격식 또는 유머) (많은 사람들이 동시에 하는) 탈출[이동] ;; [NOUN] If there is an exodus of people from a place, a lot of people leave that place at the same time. [본문으로]
2. await ; (격식) 1. [타동사] (…을) 기다리다 [본문으로]
3. riverside ; [명사, 형용사] 강가(의), 강변(의) [본문으로]
4. server ; 4. (美) (식당에서) 서빙하는 사람, 웨이터, 웨이터리스 [본문으로]
5. fork ; 1. 포크로 찌르다, 찍어 올리다 ;; fork out 은 "(특히 마지못해) (~에) 돈을 들이다" 라는 의미가 있지만 흐름상 관계없는 것으로 보임 [본문으로]
6. atop ; [전치사] (영국 영어에서는 구식 또는 문예투) (특히 美) 꼭대기에, 맨 위에 [본문으로]
7. trestle table ; Long table and bench at The Ethnographic Open-Air Museum of Latvia A trestle table is an item of furniture consisting of two or three trestle supports linked by a longitudinal cross-member over which a board or tabletop is placed. [본문으로]
8. lay (sth) out ; 1. (보기 쉽게·사용할 수 있도록) ~을 펼치다 ;; to spread something out ready to use or so that it can be seen easily [본문으로]
9. skinned ; 2. 가죽[껍질]을 벗긴. [본문으로]
10. exude ; 1. (특정한 느낌 등을[이]) 물씬 풍기다[줄줄 흐르다] ;; [VERB] If someone exudes a quality or feeling, or if it exudes, they show that they have it to a great extent. ;; 미국식 [-ˈzuːd] 영국식 [ɪɡˈzjuːd] [본문으로]
11. distinctive ; [형용사] 독특한 ;; 유의어 characteristic [본문으로]
12. enclave ; [명사] (한 국가나 도시 내의) 소수 민족[(이문화) 집단] 거주지 ;; [NOUN] An enclave is an area within a country or a city where people live who have a different nationality or culture from the people living in the surrounding country or city. ;; 미국∙영국 [ˈenkleɪv] 미국식 [ˈenkleɪv] [본문으로]
13. administrative ; [형용사] 관리[행정]상의 ;; [ADJ] Administrative work involves organizing and supervising an organization or institution. ;; 미국식 [-streɪtɪv] 영국식 [ədˈmɪnɪstrətɪv] [본문으로]
14. heart ; 6. [C, 주로 단수로] ~ (of sth) 심장[중심]부 [본문으로]
15. youngster ; [명사] (비격식) 청소년, 아이 ;; [NOUN] Young people, especially children, are sometimes referred to as youngsters. [본문으로]
16. chatter ; 1. [자동사] ~ (away/on) (to sb) (about sth) 수다를 떨다, 재잘거리다 [본문으로]
17. hoarding ; 1. [C] (bill·board 美, 英) (英) (건물·도로가의) 광고판 ;; [NOUN] A hoarding is a very large board at the side of a road or on the side of a building, which is used for displaying advertisements and posters. in AM, usually use billboard ;; 미국식 [ˈhɔːrd-] 영국식 [ˈhɔːdɪŋ] [본문으로]
18. ethnic Korean ; 한국 교포, 동포 [본문으로]
19. fade ; 2. [자동사][V] ~ (away) 서서히 사라지다, 점점 희미해지다 [본문으로]
20. stallholder ; [명사] (시장 등의) 가판대[좌판] 주인, 노점상 ;; [NOUN] A stallholder is a person who sells goods at a stall in a market. [본문으로]
21. surname ; [명사] (특히 英) 성(姓) ;; 참조 family name, last name ;; [NOUN] Your surname is the name that you share with other members of your family. In English speaking countries and many other countries it is your last name. [본문으로]
22. grown-up ; [형용사] 1. (사람이) 다 큰, 장성한, 어른[성인]이 된 ;; 유의어 adult [본문으로]
23. reckon ; 1. (비격식, 특히 英) (…라고) 생각하다 [본문으로]
24. second half ; 후반기, 후반전 [본문으로]
25. flood ; 1. [종종 pl.] 홍수, 큰물(inundation) [본문으로]
26. unfit for ; 1. ~ (for sth) | ~ (to eat, drink, live in, etc.) | ~ (to do sth) (특정 기준에) 부적합한 [본문으로]
27. flee ; [타동사] (사람·장소 등) 에서 달아나다; …을 피하다; …을 버리다. [본문으로]
28. occupation ; 3. [U] 점령 (기간) [본문으로]
29. incorporate ; [타동사] 1. [타동사] ~ sth (in/into/within sth) (일부로) 포함하다 ;; [VERB] If one thing incorporates another thing, it includes the other thing. [본문으로]
30. a swathe of ; [literary] a large part of something that includes several different things: [본문으로]
31. puppet state ; A puppet state is a state that is supposedly independent but is in fact completely dependent upon an outside power.[1] It is nominally sovereign but effectively controlled by a foreign or otherwise alien power, for reasons such as financial interests. [본문으로]
32. Manchukuo ; [명사] 만주국(國): 일본의 지배하에 있던 괴뢰 국가(1932-45); 만주 및 내몽고(內蒙古)의 일부를 포함; 현재는 중국의 일부. [본문으로]
33. colonial ; 1. 식민(지)의 ;; 참조 colony ;; 2. 흔히 Colonial (미국이 아직 영국으로부터 독립하기 전인) 식민지 시대의 [본문으로]
34. authority ; 4. [C, 주로 복수로] 당국 ;; 참조 local authority [본문으로]
35. sparsely ; [부사] 드문드문, 성기게 [본문으로]
36. populated areas ; 거주 지역 [본문으로]
37. dominion ; 1. [U] ~ (over sb/sth) (문예체) 지배[통치](권) ;; 2. [C] (격식) 영토, 영지 ;; 미국∙영국 [dəˈmɪniən] ;; [NOUN] [oft N over n] Dominion is control or authority. [본문으로]
38. militia ; [명사] 민병대, 의용군 ;; 미국∙영국 [məˈlɪʃə] ;; [NOUN] A militia is an organization that operates like an army but whose members are not professional soldiers. [본문으로]
39. side with somebody (against sb/sth) ;; (~에 반대하여) ~의 편을 들다 ;; to support somebody in an argument, a disagreement, etc. [본문으로]
40. seize power (over) ; 권력을 잡다, (~을) 장악하다 [본문으로]
41. ethnic minority ; [명사] (다른 민족 국가에 거주하는) 소수 민족 집단 ;; [NOUN] an immigrant or racial group regarded by those claiming to speak for the cultural majority as distinct and unassimilated [본문으로]
42. prefecture ; [NOUN] In some countries, administrative areas are called prefectures. [본문으로]
43. autonomous ; 1. (국가·지역·기관이) 자주적인, 자치의 ;; 유의어 independent [본문으로]
44. in practice ; 실제는 ;; in reality; in fact; in a real or normal situation [본문으로]
45. 섬나라인 타이완에 대한 표기를 the island of Taiwan 으로 표기한것을 확인 [본문으로]
46. alluring ; [ADJ] Someone or something that is alluring is very attractive. [본문으로]
47. by/in comparison (with somebody/something) ;; (~와) 비교해 보면[(~에) 비해] [본문으로]
48. prosperous ; [형용사] 번영한, 번창한 ;; 유의어 affluent [본문으로]
49. turning-point ; [명사] ~ (in sth) 전환점, 전기 ;; [NOUN] A turning point is a time at which an important change takes place which affects the future of a person or thing. [본문으로]
50. full ; [형용사] 5. [주로 명사 앞에 씀] 완전한, 모든 [본문으로]
51. operation ; 3. [C] (대규모) 기업, 사업체 ;; 4. [C] 사업, 영업 [본문으로]
52. working paper ; 6. [C] 논문 (발표) ;; 참조 Green Paper, Order Paper, position paper, White Paper, working paper [본문으로]
53. seek one’s[a] fortune ;; 한 재산 모으려 하다, 부를 추구하다, 입신출세의 길을 찾다. [본문으로]
54. all but ; 1.almost ;; 2.all (the people or things mentioned) except… [본문으로]
55. a handful of ; 소수의 [본문으로]
56. outflow ; [명사] ~ (of sth/sb) (from sth) (돈·액체·사람들 등이) 새어[빠져] 나감, 유출 ;; [NOUN] When there is an outflow of money or people, a large amount of money or people move from one place to another. [본문으로]
57. boon ; 1. 은혜, 혜택, 고마운 것, 선물; 큰 이익[to]. ;; [NOUN] You can describe something as a boon when it makes life better or easier for someone. [본문으로]
58. lively ; (live·lier, live·li·est) 1. 활기[생기] 넘치는; 적극[의욕]적인 ; 유의어 animated, vivacious ;; 2. (장소·행사 등이) 활기 넘치는, 활발한 ; 유의어 bustling [본문으로]
59. affluent ; [형용사] 부유한 ;; 유의어 prosperous, wealthy ;; 미국∙영국 [ˈæfluənt] [본문으로]
60. rustbelt ; [때로 R- B-] (美구어) 녹(錄)지대, 사양[불황] 지대(미국의 중서부·북동부의 경공업지대로 최근 불항에 허덕임). ;; [NOUN] In the United States and some other countries, the Rust Belt is a region which used to have a lot of manufacturing industry, but whose economy is now in difficulty. [본문으로]
61. earning ; [pl.] 1. 소득, 수입 ;; 2. (기업의) 수익[이익] [본문으로]
62. gain in sth ; (특정한 자질이) 커지다[많아지다] ;; to get more of a particular quality [본문으로]
63. wither ; 2 . [자동사][V] ~ (away) 약해지다, 시들어 가다 [본문으로]
64. proportion ; 1. [C + sing. / pl. v.] (전체의) 부분, (전체에서 차지하는) 비율 ;; 2. [U] ~ (of sth to sth) (다른 것과 규모·양 등을 대조한) 비[비율] ;; 유의어 ratio [본문으로]
65. evident ; 1. 명백한, 분명한[to, from, in]. ;; 유의어 CLEAR [본문으로]
66. countryside ; [U] 시골 지역, 전원 지대 [본문으로]
67. plummet ; [자동사][V] 곤두박질치다, 급락하다 ;; 유의어 plunge [본문으로]
68. amid ; [전치사] [문어] …의 한복판에; …이 한창일 때에 [본문으로]
69. split ; 1. (사람들이 견해 차이로) 분열되다, 의견이 갈리다; 분열시키다 ;; 6. [자동사][V] ~ (from/with sb) (관계를 청산하고) 헤어지다, 결별하다 ;; 참조 split up [본문으로]
70. live apart (from) ; 갈라져서 살다, 떨어져 살다 [본문으로]
71. mixed blessing ; [명사] 유리하기도 하고 불리하기도 한 것, 은총이자 저주이기도 한 것 ;; 좋기도 하고 나쁘기도 한 것 [본문으로]
72. out-migration ; 인구유출 ;; the process of people permanently leaving a place in order to live in another place ;; 참고 out-migrate [본문으로]
73. dilute ; 3. [비유적] …의 효과를 약화시키다, …을 반감하다. ;; 미국∙영국 [daɪˈluːt] [본문으로]
74. wary ; ((war·i·er; -i·est)) 조심성 있는 ((of)); 방심하지 않는; 세심[신중]한 ;; [ADJ] If you are wary of something or someone, you are cautious because you do not know much about them and you believe they may be dangerous or cause problems. [본문으로]
75. be mindful of ; ...에 주의하다, ~를 유념하다 [본문으로]
76. fringe ; 5. [집합적] 극단론자 ((경제·사회·정치·문화 등의)), 편향(偏向)론자, 주류에서의 이탈자(cf. LUNATIC FRINGE) [본문으로]
77. reclaim ; 1. [타동사] ~ sth (from sb/sth) (분실하거나 빼앗긴 물건 등을) 되찾다[돌려 달라고 하다] ;; 참조 baggage reclaim [본문으로]
78. border agreement ; (군사) 국가전략 [본문으로]
79. annul ; [타동사][VN] (-ll-) (법적으로) 취소하다[무효하게 하다] ;; [VERB] If an election or a contract is annulled, it is declared invalid, so that legally it is considered never to have existed. ;; 미국∙영국 [əˈnʌl] [본문으로]
80. negotiate ; [타동사] 1. 협상[교섭]하다, (교섭으로) 협정하다, 결정하다 ;; 3. <거래·업무 등을> 처리하다, 수행하다; [구어] <도로의 위험 구간을> 잘 통과하다, <곤란·장애 등을> 뛰어넘다, 빠져나가다; 뚫고 나가다 [본문으로]
81. illegitimate ; 2. (규칙·법률에 어긋나는) 불법의 ;; 유의어 unauthorized [본문으로]
82. dual loyalty ; In politics, dual loyalty is loyalty to two separate interests that potentially conflict with each other. [본문으로]
83. make-up ; [명사] 2. [sing.] (사람의) 기질 ;; 3. [sing.] ~ (of sth) 구성 (요소·방식) [본문으로]
84. alter ; 1. <모양·성질·위치 등을> 변경하다, 바꾸다; <집을> 개조하다 ;; 유의어 change [본문으로]
85. influx ; [명사] ~ (of sb/sth) (into…) (많은 사람·자금·물건이) 밀어닥침[밀려듦] ;; [NOUN] An influx of people or things into a place is their arrival there in large numbers. [본문으로]
86. bankrupt ; [형용사] 1. 파산한, 지불 능력이 없는 ;; 2. (정신적으로) 파탄한 ;; 3. [[P]] 상실한, 잃은 ((of)), 결여된, 없는 ((in, of)) [본문으로]
87. lurk ; 1. [자동사][usually + adv. / prep.] (특히 나쁜 짓을 하려고 기다리며) 숨어 있다[도사리다] ; 유의어 skulk ;; 2. [자동사] (불쾌한 일위험이) 도사리다 ;; [VERB] If someone lurks somewhere, they wait there secretly so that they cannot be seen, usually because they intend to do something bad. [본문으로]
88. unified ; [형용사] 통일된 [본문으로]
89. anxiety about ; …에 대한 걱정. [본문으로]
90. border area ; 접경지역 [본문으로]
91. research into ; …을 연구[조사]하다. [본문으로]
92. ensue ; [자동사] 문어 1. 뒤이어 일어나다, 후에 일어나다, 계속되다 ;; 2. …의 결과로서 일어나다(result) ((from, on)) ;; ORIGIN Latin ; 「뒤를 잇다」의 뜻에서 [본문으로]
93. arcane ; 비밀의, 신비한(esoteric) ; 불명료한(obscure), 난해한 [본문으로]
94. fiery ; [주로 명사 앞에 씀] 1. 불타는 듯한; 불의 ;; 2. (성질이) 불같은 ;; 3. (감정, 특히 분노가) 맹렬한 ; 유의어 passionate [본문으로]
95. a debate over ; …에 대한 토론 [본문으로]
96. straddle ; 2. [타동사] (강·도로·땅을[의]) 가로지르다[양쪽에 걸치다] ;; 미국∙영국 [ˈstrædl] [본문으로]
97. in nature ; 1. 사실상, 현실적으로 ;; 2. (《최상급의 강조》) 완전히, 더할 나위 없이; 《의문의 강조》 도대체; 《부정의 강조》 조금도 [본문으로]
98. expand ; 3. <범위 등을> 확장하다, 확대하다(enlarge) ((into)); <토론 등을> 전개시키다(develop) ((into)); [수학] 전개하다 [본문으로]
99. territorial claim ; 자기네 영토라는 주장 [본문으로]
100. act as ; …으로서의 역할을 하다[맡다]. ;; ...의 소임을 다하다. ;; to perform a particular role or function [본문으로]
101. buffer zone ; 완충 지대 [본문으로]
102. fall apart ; 1. 다 허물어질[부서질] 정도이다 ;; 2. 결딴나다 ;; 1.to be old or in bad condition and break or break into pieces ;; 2.to have so many problems that it is no longer possible to exist or operate [본문으로]
103. for[at] the moment/present ;; 지금은[잠깐 동안은] ;; 1. (지금) 당장은, 우선은 ;; 2. 그 당시 [본문으로]
104. worry ; [명사] 2. [U]걱정, 염려, 지나친 근심; [C][보통 pl.]걱정 거리, 걱정의 씨 [본문으로]
105. resolve ; (격식) 1. [타동사][VN] (문제 등을) 해결하다 ; 유의어 settle [본문으로]
106. far-flung ; [주로 명사 앞에 씀] (문예체) 1. 먼, 멀리 떨어진 ;; 2. 널리 퍼진 ;; [ADJ] Far-flung places are a very long distance away from where you are or from important places. [본문으로]
107. hold one's breath ; 1.stop breathing for a short time, for example because you are afraid of something or very anxious about something ;; 2.be anxious while you are waiting for something that you are worried about [본문으로]
108. by then ; 그때까지는 [본문으로]
109. globe-trot ; [자동사] (~·ted; ~·ting) 세계 (관광) 여행을 하다 ;; [VERB] If someone spends their time globe-trotting, they spend a lot of time travelling to different parts of the world. [본문으로]