[Annotated] What makes a country good at football?

Wealth, size and interest in football explain almost half of countries' international performance. The rest can be taught

On a sunny Saturday afternoon, within kicking distance of^[각주:1] Uruguay's national football stadium, 14 seven-year-olds walk onto a bumpy^[각주:2] pitch^[각주:3]. They are cheered by their parents, who are also the coaches, kit-washers and caterers. The match is one of hundreds played every weekend as part of Baby Football, a national scheme for^[각주:4] children aged four to 13. Among the graduates are Luis Suárez and Edinson Cavani, two of the world's best strikers. 

Messrs Suárez and Cavani are Uruguay's spearheads at^[각주:5] the World Cup, which kicks off in Russia on June 14th. Bookmakers^[각주:6] reckon^[각주:7] La Celeste are ninth-favorites to win, for what would be the third time. Only Brazil, Germany and Italy have won more, even though Uruguay's population of 3.4m is less than Berlin's. Though it is no longer the giant that it was in the early 20th century, Uruguay still punches well above its weight^[각주:8]. Messrs Suárez and Cavani reached the semi-finals in^[각주:9] 2010 and secured^[각주:10] a record 15th South American championship in^[각주:11] 2011. Their faces adorn Montevideo's football museum^[각주:12], along with a century's worth of tattered shirts^[각주:13] and gleaming trophies^[각주:14]. 

If tiny Uruguay can be so successful, why not much larger or richer countries? That question appears to torment Xi Jinping, China's president, who wants his country to become a football superpower by 2050. His plan includes 20,000 new training centres, to go with the world's biggest academy in^[각주:15] Guangzhou, which cost $185m. The United Arab Emirates and Qatar have spent billions of dollars buying top European clubs, hoping to learn from them. Saudi Arabia is paying to send the Spanish league nine players. A former amateur^[각주:16] footballer named Viktor Orban, who is now Hungary's autocratic^[각주:17] prime minister^[각주:18], has splurged on^[각주:19] stadiums that are rarely filled. So far these countries have little to show for their spending. China failed to qualify for this year's World Cup^[각주:20], and even lost 1-0 to Syria - a humiliation that provoked street protests. 

Footballer^[각주:21], meet model 

The Economist has built a statistical model to identify what makes a country good at football. Our aim is not to predict the winner in Russia, which can be done best by looking at a team's recent results or the calibre of its squad^[각주:22]. Instead we want to discover the underlying^[각주:23] sporting^[각주:24] and economic factors that determine a country's footballing potential^[각주:25] - and to work out why some countries exceed expectations^[각주:26] or improve rapidly. We take the results of all international games since 1990 and see which variables are correlated with^[각주:27] the goal difference between teams. 

We started with economics. Stefan Szymanski, an economist at the University of Michigan who has built a similar model, has shown that wealthier countries tend to be sportier^[각주:28]. Football has plenty of rags-to-riches stars^[각주:29], but those who grow up in poor places face the greatest obstacles. In Senegal, coaches have to deworm^[각주:30] and feed some players before they can train them; one official reckons only three places in the country have grass pitches. So we included GDP per head in our model. 

Then we tried to gauge^[각주:31] football's popularity^[각주:32]. In 2006 FIFA, the sport's governing body^[각주:33], asked national federations^[각주:34] to estimate the number of teams and players of any standard. We added population figures^[각주:35], to show the overall participation rate^[각주:36]. We supplemented these guesses with^[각주:37] more recent data: how often people searched for football on Google between 2004 and 2018, relative to^[각주:38] other team sports such as rugby, cricket, American football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey. Football got 90% of Africa's attention compared with 20% in America and just 10% in cricket-loving South Asia. To capture national enthusiasm and spending on sports in general^[각주:39], we also included Olympic medals won per person. 

Next we accounted for^[각주:40] home advantage^[각주:41], which is worth about 0.6 goals per game, and for strength of opposition. Peru gets extra credit for^[각주:42] playing so often against overachievers^[각주:43], for example. Finally, to reduce the distorting effect of hapless^[각주:44] minnows like^[각주:45] the Cayman Islands and Bhutan, we whittled down our results to^[각주:46] the 126 countries that have played at least 150 matches since 1990. 

Our model explains 40% of the variance in^[각주:47] average goal difference for these teams. But that leaves plenty of outliers^[각주:48]. Uruguay was among the biggest, managing nearly a goal per game better than expected. Brazil, Argentina, Portugal and Spain were close behind^[각주:49]. West Africa and the Balkans overachieved^[각주:50], too. 

Sadly for ambitious autocrats, the data suggest that China and the Middle East have already performed above their low potential. Cricket dominates Google searches in the Gulf states^[각주:51] (no doubt largely because South Asian migrant workers^[각주:52] love it). Just 2% of Chinese played football in 2006, according to FIFA, compared with 7% of Europeans and South Americans. China and Middle Eastern countries have occasionally managed to qualify for the World Cup^[각주:53], but none has won a game at the tournament since 1998. The model's most chastening^[각주:54] finding^[각주:55] is that much of what determines success is beyond the immediate control of football administrators^[각주:56]. Those in Africa cannot make their countries less poor. Those in Asia struggle to drum up interest in^[각주:57] the sport. Football's share of Google searches has been rising in China but falling in Saudi Arabia. 

Nonetheless^[각주:58], officials with dreams of winning the World Cup can learn four lessons from our model's outliers and improvers^[각주:59]. First, encourage children to develop creatively. Second, stop talented teenagers from falling through the cracks^[각주:60]. Third, make the most of football's vast global network. And fourth, prepare properly for the tournament itself. 

Start with the children. The obvious lesson from Uruguay is to get as many nippers^[각주:61] kicking balls as possible, to develop their technical skills. Mr Xi wants the game taught in 50,000 Chinese schools by 2025. China might try something like "Project 119", a round-the-clock^[각주:62] training scheme for^[각주:63] youngsters, which helped to lift China to the top of the medal table at the Beijing Olympics in 2008. The trouble is that relentless^[각주:64] drilling^[각주:65] "loses the rough edges that^[각주:66] make geniuses", says Jonathan Wilson, editor of the Blizzard, a journal covering the game around the world^[각주:67]. East German players trained much harder than those in West Germany, but only qualified for a major tournament once. 

The trick is not just to get lost of children playing, but also to let them develop creatively. In many countries they do so by teaching themselves. George Weah, now the president of Liberia but once his continent's deadliest striker, perfected his shooting with^[각주:68] a rag ball^[각주:69] in a swampy^[각주:70] slum^[각주:71]. Futsal, a five-a-side game with^[각주:72] a small ball requiring nifty technique^[각주:73], honed the skills of^[각주:74] great Iberian and Latin American players - from Pelé and Diego Maradona to Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi, Neymar and Andrés Iniesta. Zinedine Zidane was one of many French prodigies who^[각주:75] learned street football, or ballon sur bitume. In an experiment that asked adult players to predict what would happen next in a video clip, the best performers had spent more time mucking around^[각주:76] aged six to ten. Another study found that academy prospects who^[각주:77] ended up with contracts had put in more hours of informal practice as children. 

Such opportunities are disappearing in rich countries. Matt Crocker, the head of player development for England's Football Association (FA), says parents are now reluctant to let^[각주:78] children outside for a kickabout^[각주:79]. Many social-housing^[각주:80] estates^[각주:81] have signs banning ball games^[각주:82]. Dele Alli, a mercurial^[각주:83] England attacker, is unusual for having learned in what he has called "a concrete cage". The challenge is "to organize the streets into your club", say Guus Hiddink, who has managed the Netherlands, South Korea, Australia, Russia and Turkey. 

Deutschland über alles 

The Deutscher Fußball-Bund (DFB), Germany's national body, has done so zealously. In the early 2000s it realized that Germany's burly^[각주:84] players were struggling against defter teams^[각주:85]. Our model reckons Die Mannschaft, as the national team is known, should surpass everyone else^[각주:86], given Germany's wealth, vast player pool and lack of competing sports. But between 1990 and 2005 it performed about a third of a goal worse per match than expected. 

So the DFB revamped^[각주:87]. German clubs have spent about €1bn ($1.2bn) on developing youth academies since 2001, to meet 250 nationwide^[각주:88] criteria^[각주:89]. Youngsters now have up to twice as much training by the age of 18. Crucially, however, sessions focus on creativity in random environments. One exercise involves a robotic cage that flings balls from^[각주:90] various angles for a player to control and pass. The men who won the World Cup in 2014, writes Raphael Honigstein, a German football author, learned through "systematic training to play with the instinct and imagination of those mythical^[각주:91] 'street footballers' older people in Germany were always fantasizing about^[각주:92]". Our model reckons that since 2006 the team has performed almost exactly at the high level expected of it^[각주:93]. 

England has followed, overhauling its youth programme in 2012. Mr Crocker explains that players are encouraged to take risks^[각주:94] and think for themselves^[각주:95]. Spanish clubs have long excelled at this^[각주:96], by endlessly practising the rondo: a close-quarters version of^[각주:97] piggy-in-the-middle^[각주:98]. But the England under-17s that thumped Spain 5-2 in^[각주:99] last year's World Cup final ran rings around their opponents^[각주:100]. Mr Crocker says they devised^[각주:101] their own tactics^[각주:102], with little managerial help^[각주:103]. England's under-20s won their World Cup, too. 

Such self-confidence was lacking in South Korea, Mr Hiddink recalls. When he took over in^[각주:104] 2001, the country was already overachieving relative to our model's low expectations^[각주:105], given its 2% participation rate^[각주:106]. But the manager believed that his charges had been held back by^[각주:107] a fear of making mistakes. "Deep down I discovered a lot of creative players," he says. With some help from lucky refereeing decisions^[각주:108], South Korea reached the semi-finals in 2002 - making it the only country outside Europe and South America to get that far since 1930.

The second lesson for ambitious officials is to make sure that gifted teenagers do not fall through the cracks^[각주:109]. The DFB realized that many had been overlooked by^[각주:110] club scouts, so it set up 360 extra regional centres for^[각주:111] those who missed the cut^[각주:112]. One of them was André Schürrle, who provided the pass that led to the cup-winning goal in 2014. In South Korea Mr Hiddink noticed that some of the best youngsters played for the army or universities, where they were sometimes missed by professional scouts. 

When Russia bid to host this year's tournament in^[각주:113] 2010, Mr Hiddink implored his then-bosses to^[각주:114] create a nationwide scouting programme, to no avail^[각주:115]. The Russian team has declined since then, failing to win a game at the European Championship in 2016. Russia now has one of the World Cup's oldest squads. Such short-sightedness^[각주:116] has harmed America, too, which failed to qualify for this year's tournament. Our model reckons it should be one of the strongest countries, even accounting for the popularity of^[각주:117] other sports such as baseball and basketball. But few players get serious coaching in the amateur college system, and those who are not drafted to^[각주:118] Major League Soccer cannot be promoted from lower divisions. 

Centralized schemes are^[각주:119] easier to establish in small countries. Every Uruguayan Baby Football team has its results logged in a national database^[각주:120]. Iceland, which has qualified despite having only 330,000 people and 100 full-time professionals, has trained over 600 coaches to work with grassroots clubs^[각주:121]. Since 2000 it has built 154 miniature pitches with undersoil heating to^[각주:122] give every child a chance to play under supervision^[각주:123]. Such programmes are unfeasible in^[각주:124] Africa. Abdoulaye Sarr, a former Senegal manager, says that the pool of^[각주:125] talent is^[각주:126] huge but barely tapped^[각주:127]. Money that could be spent on scouting is lavished on officials instead. In a conspicuous waste of scarce resources, Senegal is sending 300 of them to Russia. 

Belgium poaches elephants^[각주:128]  

West Africa has, however, taken our third tip by tapping into^[각주:129] sport's global network. Western Europe is at the centre of this network, since it has the richest clubs, where players get the best coaching. Ivory Coast, which failed to qualify this time but is Africa's biggest overachiever, exported a generation of young stars to Beveren, a Belgian club. Many of them later thrived in England's Premier League. When Senegal beat France, the reigning champions^[각주:130], in 2002, all but two of its squad members played for^[각주:131] French teams. 

Senegal could have used its resources even more effectively. Patrick Vieira, who left Dakar for France aged eight, was playing for the former colonial power^[각주:132]. He was one of several immigrant Frenchmen who won Les Bleus the World Cup in 1998. His home country had never contacted him. Today Senegal is more astute about^[각주:133] recruiting its diaspora^[각주:134], and has picked nine foreign-born players for^[각주:135] the tournament. Our model reckons the country has performed about 0.4 goals per game better since 2002 than it did before. 

The 21st Club, a football consultancy, notes that among European countries the Balkans export the highest share of players to stronger domestic leagues. Since 1991, when Croatia's 4m people gained independence^[각주:136], none of its clubs has advanced far in the Champions League, Europe's leading club competition. Yet Croatian clubs have sold lots of players to Real Madrid, Barcelona, Bayern Munich and Milan, and those émigrés^[각주:137] carried Croatia to the semi-finals in 1998. These export pipelines^[각주:138] can become self-perpetuating^[각주:139], thinks Mr Wilson: "once a team does well at a World Cup, and some of its players do well, everybody wants to buy them."

Some countries are less adept^[각주:140]. In the past 15 years Mexico's under-17s have outperformed those from^[각주:141] Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay. But a third of Mexico's senior squad plays in its domestic league, compared with just two or three players for the others. Dennis te Kloese, the national director, says that the Mexican diaspora boosts viewing figures^[각주:142] and revenues for^[각주:143] domestic clubs, who can pay high enough wages to keep talented locals in the country, rather than venturing to^[각주:144] unfashionable European leagues^[각주:145]. This domestic bias helps explain why Mexico is one of the few Latin American countries to perform as well as expected, rather than better. 

Exporting players is not the only way to benefit from foreign expertise^[각주:146]. Mr Wilson says that much of South America's footballing education came from Jewish coaches fleeing Europe in^[각주:147] the 1930s. Today there is a well-trodden^[각주:148] circuit of^[각주:149] international gurus like Mr Hiddink, who was among the first of a dozen former Real Madrid bosses to have worked in Asia. Yet Mr Szymanski of the University of Michigan has shown that few managers can do much to improve mediocre teams^[각주:150]. He also finds that teams outside Europe and South America are no closer to catching up than they were 20 years ago. The data suggest that South Korea has slightly worse since 2002 than it did before. 

Mr Szymanski believes these countries are experiencing a kind of footballing "middle-income trap^[각주:151]", in which developing economies quickly copy technologies from rich ones but fail to implement structural reforms. A clever manager might bring new tactical^[각주:152] fads^[각주:153] but cannot produce a generation of creative youngsters. China is said to be paying Marcello Lippi, who led Italy to victory in 2006, $28m a year. Unless he is supported by youth coaches and scouts who rewards imaginative play, and a generation of youngsters who love the game, the money will be wasted. 

Our final lesson is for the World Cup itself: prepare properly. For starters^[각주:154], make sure you can afford it. In 2014 Ghana brought in $3m of unpaid bonuses by courier^[각주:155] to avert^[각주:156] a players' strike^[각주:157], while Nigeria's squad boycotted a training session over wages^[각주:158]. Fabio Capello, Russia's former boss, went without his $11m salary for months after the rouble collapsed^[각주:159]. Navigating dressing-room politics is trickier^[각주:160]. Winning players from Spain and Germany have described the importance of breaking down club-based cliques^[각주:161] and dropping stars who do not fit the team's tactics. 

The hardest decisions fall to the players^[각주:162]. England's results from the penalty spot have been woeful^[각주:163], losing six of seven shoot-outs in tournaments^[각주:164]. Video analysis shows that players who analysis shows that players who rush^[각주:165] tend to miss penalties; the English are particularly hasty^[각주:166]. So the under-17s, who won a shoot-out in their World Cup, have worked on^[각주:167] slowing down^[각주:168] and practising a range of premeditated shots^[각주:169]. 

The bane and the delight of^[각주:170] the World Cup is that decades of planning depend on such fine margins. A country could plan meticulously^[각주:171] and still be thwarted by^[각주:172] an unlucky bounce of the ball or bad decision by the referee. "If something goes wrong, everybody wants to rip up the book^[각주:173]," says Mr Wilson. For spectators^[각주:174], however, this randomness^[각주:175] offers a glimmer of hope^[각주:176]. Teams from Asia, Africa and North America remain the underdogs^[각주:177], but ought to have had more fairytale runs like South Korea's in 2002. The 21st Club reckons there is a one-in-four chance a first-time champion will emerge this year. For one intoxicating month^[각주:178], fans around the world will forget the years of hurt and believe that their history books, like those in Montevideo's museum, could be about to add a glorious new chapter. 

1. within kicking distance of ; (발을 뻗으면 닿을 정도로) 가까운 거리에 있는 [본문으로]
2. bumpy ; (bump・ier , bumpi・est) 1. (바닥이) 울퉁불퉁한 [본문으로]
3. pitch ; 1. FOR SPORT | [C] (field 美, 英) (英 또한) (일부 스포츠의) 경기장 [본문으로]
4. scheme ; 1. 계획, 안(案), 설계 ((for)); [영] (정부 등의) 사업 계획 [본문으로]
5. spearhead ; 창끝; 선봉, 돌격대의 선두, 공격의 최전선, 앞장(서는 사람·물건) [본문으로]
6. bookmaker ; 2. 마권 영업자, 도박꾼(bookie) [본문으로]
7. reckon ; 7. <…라고> 생각하다, 추정하다 [본문으로]
8. punch above one's weight ; (idiomatic) To (attempt to) achieve or perform at a higher level than would be expected based on one's preparation, attributes, rank, or past accomplishments. [본문으로]
9. semi-final ; 준결승전 ;; [NOUN] A semi-final is one of the two matches or races in a competition that are held to decide who will compete in the final. [본문으로]
10. secure ; 1. GET STH | ~ sth (for sb/sth) | ~ sb sth (격식) (특히 힘들게) 얻어 내다, 획득[확보]하다 [본문으로]
11. record ; 3. HIGHEST/BEST | [C] (특히 스포츠에서 최고・최저 성적・결과를 나타내는) 기록 [본문으로]
12. adorn ; [타동사][VN] [흔히 수동태로] ~ sth/sb (with sth) (격식) 꾸미다, 장식하다 [본문으로]
13. tattered ; [형용사] 낡을 대로 낡은, 누더기[넝마]가 된; 다 망가진 [본문으로]
14. gleaming ; [형용사] 빛나는, 환한 [본문으로]
15. go with ; 1. ~에 포함되다[딸려 나오다] ;; 2. (계획·제의 등을) 받아들이다 ;; 4. go together 공존하다[동반되다] [본문으로]
16. amateur ; 미국∙영국 [|ӕmətə(r) ; |ӕmətʃə(r)] [본문으로]
17. autocratic ; (또는 autocratical) 전제의, 독재의; 전제 군주의[와 같은], 독재적인. [본문으로]
18. prime minister ; [종종 P- M-] 국무총리, 수상(premier) ((略 PM)) [본문으로]
19. splurge on ; …에 돈을 펑펑 쓰다. [본문으로]
20. qualify ; 4. FOR COMPETITION | [자동사][V] ~ (for sth) (대회에) 출전할 자격이 있다; 예선을 통과하다 [본문으로]
21. footballer ; [명사] (특히 프로) 축구선수 [본문으로]
22. calibre (caliber) ; 3. [U] 재능, 덕량, 도량; 인품, 사람됨, 인물. ;; 미국∙영국 [kǽləbər] [본문으로]
23. underlying ; [형용사] [명사 앞에만 씀], (참고: underlie) 1. (겉으로 잘 드러나지는 않지만) 근본적인[근원적인] [본문으로]
24. sporting ; [형용사] 1. 운동 경기의, 운동 경기용의, 사냥에 쓰는. [본문으로]
25. footballing ; [형용사] [명사 앞에만 씀] (英) 축구의, 축구와 관련된 [본문으로]
26. exceed expectations ; 기대를 능가하다 [본문으로]
27. correlate ; [타동사] …을 서로 관련시키다, …사이의 상관 관계를 입증하다[with, to]. [본문으로]
28. sporty ; (sport・ier , sporti・est), (비격식) 1. (특히 英) 스포츠를 좋아하는[잘하는] [본문으로]
29. rags-to-riches ; [형용사] 가난뱅이에서 부자가 된[출세한] ;; 미국·영국 [rǽɡztərìtʃiz] [본문으로]
30. deworm ; [타동사] <개 따위로부터> 기생충을 구제하다; 구충[살충]하다 [본문으로]
31. gauge (美 또한 gage) ; 3. 추산[추정]하다 ;; 미국∙영국 [geɪdƷ] [본문으로]
32. popularity ; [U] ~ (with/among sb) 인기 [본문으로]
33. governing body ; (병원·학교 등의) 이사회, 관리부 [본문으로]
34. federation ; 2. [C] (협회・노조 등의) 연합[연맹](체) ;; 3. 연합 조합, 조합 연합회, 연맹, 총동맹. [본문으로]
35. population figures ; 인구 통계, 인구 수 [본문으로]
36. participation rate ; [명사] 참여율, 신청률 [본문으로]
37. supplement ; [타동사][VN] ~ sth (with sth) 보충[추가]하다 ;; 동사 [|sʌplɪment] [본문으로]
38. relative to ; 2. …에 비례하여 [본문으로]
39. in general ; 1. 보통; 대개 ;; 2. 전반적으로 [본문으로]
40. account for ; 1. ~을 해명하다[~의 이유가 되다] ;; 2. 설명하다 [본문으로]
41. home advantage ; [명사] (경기 따위에서) 홈(그라운드)의 이점. (또는 hóme-field advántage) [본문으로]
42. get[have, take] (the) credit for ;; …의 공적을 인정받다, …으로 명성을 얻다 ;; ~을 인정받다 [본문으로]
43. overachiever ; [명사] 표준[기대] 이상의 성공[성적]을 거두는 사람[(특히) 학생], 민완가(敏腕家). [본문으로]
44. hapless ; [형용사] (명사 앞에만 씀) (격식) 불운한, 불행한(unlucky, unfortunate) ;; 미국∙영국 [|hӕpləs] [본문으로]
45. minnow ; 2. 잔챙이, 잡어; 하찮은 사람[것] ;; 미국식 [|mɪnoʊ] 영국식 [|mɪnəʊ] [본문으로]
46. whittle (sth/sb) down ; to reduce the size or number of somebody/something gradually [본문으로]
47. variance ; 1. 변화(하는 상태·사실), 변동, 변천(change, alteration). ;; 2. 불일치, 서로 어긋남(divergence, discrepancy) ; 상위(difference). [본문으로]
48. outlier ; 1. 집 밖에서 자는 사람[동물], 임지(任地)에 살지 않는 사람, 영외 거주자 ;; 2. 본체(本體)를 떠난 물건, 분리물 ;; 미국∙영국 [áutlàiər] [본문으로]
49. be close behind ; 바짝 뒤쫓고 있다 [본문으로]
50. overachieve ; [자동사] 기대 이상으로 좋은 성적을 올리다. ;; <참고> underachieve [본문으로]
51. Gulf States ; pl. (the Gulf States) 1. [美] 멕시코만 연안 제주(諸州)(Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas). 2. 페르시아만 연안 제국(Persian Gulf States)(바레인, 이란, 이라크, 쿠웨이트, 오만, 카타르, 사우디아라비아, 아랍에미리트의 8개 산유국). [본문으로]
52. migrant worker ; 이주 노동자 [본문으로]
53. qualify for ; ~의 자격을 얻다, ~의 출전권을 획득하다 [본문으로]
54. chastening ; [ADJ] A chastening experience makes you regret that you have behaved badly or stupidly. ;; chasten ; [동사] 1. 벌하여 바로잡다; 단련시키다 ;; 2. <열정 등을> 억제하다(subdue), <성질 등을> 누그러지게 하다 ;; 3. <사상·문체 등을> 지나치지 않게 하다; <작품 등을> 세련하다(refine) ;; 4. <마음 등을> 맑게 하다, 정화하다 [본문으로]
55. finding ; 1. [U]발견; [흔히 pl.]발견[습득]물 ;; 2-b). 조사[연구] 결과 [본문으로]
56. administrator ; [명사] 관리자, 행정인 ;; 미국∙영국 [əd|mɪnɪstreɪtə(r)] [본문으로]
57. drum up sth ; to work hard to get something [본문으로]
58. nonetheless ; 그럼에도 불구하고, 그런데도(none the less, nevertheless). [본문으로]
59. improver ; 1. 개량[개선]하는 사람[물건] [본문으로]
60. fall through the cracks ; (부주의로) 빠지다, 쇠외당하다 (=be neglected through error or omission). [본문으로]
61. nipper ; [명사] (비격식) 어린 아이 ;; 미국∙영국 [|nɪpə(r)] [본문으로]
62. round-the-clock ; [형용사] (명사 앞에만 씀) 24시간[밤낮 없이] 계속되는 ;; 참고 clock [본문으로]
63. training scheme ; 훈련 계획 [본문으로]
64. relentless ; 1. 수그러들지 않는, 끈질긴 ;; 2. 가차 없는 [본문으로]
65. drilling ; [U] 1. 교련; 훈련, 연습 [본문으로]
66. rough edges ; (사람·사물의) 조야한[다듬어지지 못한] 점[구석] [본문으로]
67. cover ; 4. INCLUDE | [타동사][VN] 다루다; 포함시키다 [본문으로]
68. perfect ; [타동사][VN] 완벽하게 하다 [본문으로]
69. rag ; 1. [C , U] (특히 걸레・행주 등으로 쓰는) 해진 천[누더기] ;; 참고 glad rags [본문으로]
70. swampy ; [형용사] 늪이 많은; 늪 같은; 습지가 있는; 질퍽질퍽한 [본문으로]
71. slum ; 1. [종종 pl.] 빈민굴, 빈민가 ;; 2. 불결한[초라한] 주거 장소 [본문으로]
72. five-a-side ; [명사] 파이브 어사이드(5명씩 팀을 이뤄 하는 실내축구) [본문으로]
73. nifty ; [속어] 스마트한(smart), 멋진, 멋들어진, 재치있는. [본문으로]
74. hone ; [타동사] 2. [비유적] 〔감각·기술 따위〕를 예민하게 하다, 연마하다. [본문으로]
75. prodigy ; [명사] pl. -ies 영재 [본문으로]
76. muck (sb) [about]around ; (英, 비격식) (특히 할 일을 두고) 노닥거리다 ;; (특히 자꾸 마음을 바꾸거나 정직하지 않게 대하며) ~를 가지고 놀다 [본문으로]
77. prospect ; 3-a. [pl.] 성공할 가망; 가망이 있는[유망한] 사람 [본문으로]
78. be reluctant to ; ~을 주저하다, 망설이다 [본문으로]
79. kickabout ; [명사] an occasion when a group of people kick a ball to each other for pleasure [본문으로]
80. social housing ; [명사] (영국에서)공공 지원 주택(저렴한가격에 구입・임차할수 있도록 지역개발위원회 등에서 제공하는 주택) [본문으로]
81. housing estate ; [명사] 주택 개발 단지 [본문으로]
82. sign ; 2. FOR INFORMATION/WARNING | [C] 표지판, 간판 [본문으로]
83. mercurial ; 1. 경박한, 변덕스러운 ;; 2. 민활한, 재치 있는; 쾌활한, 명랑한, 활기 있는 [본문으로]
84. burly ; ((-li·er; -li·est)) <몸이> 억센, 건장한, 실한(stout); 퉁명스러운(bluff) ;; 미국식 [|bɜ:rli] 영국식 [|bɜ:li] [본문으로]
85. deft ; 1. (사람의 움직임이) 날랜, 재빠른 ;; 2. 능숙한, 능란한 [본문으로]
86. surpass ; 1. …보다 낫다, 능가하다, 뛰어나다 [본문으로]
87. revamp ; [타동사][VN] (보통 더 보기 좋도록) 개조[수리]하다 [본문으로]
88. nationwide ; [형용사] 국가 전반에 걸친, 전국적인. [본문으로]
89. criteria ; [명사] criterion의 복수형. ;; 규준, 표준, 기준 ;; 참고 standard ;; 보충설명 ; 판단의 표준 · 기준. [본문으로]
90. fling ; (flings[-z]; flung) 1. (거칠게) …을 던지다, 내던지다, 팽개치다(about, away, down, off, out)[at, on(to), over, to]; 《보어와 함께》 …을 (팽개치듯이) 움직여 (…의 상태로) 하다. ;; 동의어 ; THROW [본문으로]
91. mythical ; 5. (사실의) 근거가 없는(without foundation in fact), 상상적인, 사실무근의(imaginary); 가공(架空)의, 꾸며낸(fictitious). [본문으로]
92. fantasize ; [자, 타동사] 환상에 잠기다, 공상하다, 상상하다(imagine)(about). [본문으로]
93. be expected of ; ~를 하도록 요구되다. 기대되다. [본문으로]
94. take a risk ; (위험할 수 있는 줄 알면서) 모험을 하다[받아들이다] ;; 동의어 ; take risks [본문으로]
95. think for oneself ; 1. 혼자서 생각하다, 제 마음대로 판단하다 ;; 2. 자주성이 있다, 독립심이 있다 [본문으로]
96. excel ; (-ll-) 1. [자동사][V] ~ (in/at sth/at doing sth) 뛰어나다, 탁월하다 ;; 미국∙영국 [ɪk|sel] [본문으로]
97. close quarter ; 비좁은 장소 ;; In a confined space. [본문으로]
98. piggy-in-the-middle ; [NOUN] Piggy-in-the-middle or pig-in-the-middle is a game in which two children throw a ball to each other and a child standing between them tries to catch it. [본문으로]
99. thump ; 2. 후려갈기다, 강타하다 ;; 3. …에 크게 이기다, 완패시키다 [본문으로]
100. run rings around[round] ; (어떤 일을 하는 데 있어서) ~보다 훨씬 더 낫다 ;; do something very well and so make your opponent look foolish [본문으로]
101. devise ; [타동사][VN] 창안[고안]하다 ;; 미국∙영국 [dɪ|vaɪz] [본문으로]
102. tactic ; 1. [C] [주로 복수로] (어떤 일을 달성하기 위한) 전략[작전] ;; 2. [pl.] tactics 전술 참고 strategy [본문으로]
103. managerial ; 1. 지배인의 ; 관리자의, (특히) 극장 경영자의. ;; 2. 경영[관리](상)의. [본문으로]
104. take over ; 1. (~로부터) (~을) 인계받다 [본문으로]
105. relative to ; 1. …에 관하여 ;; 2. …에 비례하여 [본문으로]
106. participation rate ; [명사] 참여율, 신청률 [본문으로]
107. hold (sth/sb) back ; 1. ~을 저지[제지]하다 ;; 2. (진전·발전을) 방해[저해]하다 [본문으로]
108. a refereeing decision ; 심판의 결정 [본문으로]
109. fall through the cracks ; (부주의로) 빠지다, 소외되다(=be neglected through error or omission). [본문으로]
110. overlook ; [vn] 1. 못 보고 넘어가다, 간과하다 ;; 2. (잘못된 것을) 못 본 체하다[눈감아주다] ;; 4. ~ sb (for sth) (일자리・직책에 대해) 고려 대상으로 삼지 않다 [본문으로]
111. set up ; [동사] 건립하다, 설립[수립]하다; 준비하다; …인 체하다; 함정에 빠뜨리다. ;; 동의어 ; erect, establish; prepare; claim to be; entrap, frame. [본문으로]
112. miss the cut ; fail to equal or better a required score, thus being eliminated from the last two rounds of a four-round tournament. [본문으로]
113. bid to + infinitive ; If someone bids to do something, they compete with other people to do it: [본문으로]
114. implore ; (implores[-z]; implored; -plor·ing) …을[에게] 애원[탄원]하다, 간청하다[for, to do, that(節)]. ;; 동의어 ; BEG [본문으로]
115. (all) to no avail ; 보람없이, 헛되이 [본문으로]
116. short-sightedness ; [명사] 선견지명이 없음, 근시안적임. [본문으로]
117. account for ; 1. ~을 해명하다[~의 이유가 되다] ;; 2. 설명하다 [본문으로]
118. draft ; [타동사] 4. …을 뽑다, 선발하다; 《美》 〔신인 선수〕를 드래프트하다; 징병하다[into]. [본문으로]
119. centralize ; [타동사] 중심에 모으다; (…에) 집중시키다 ((in)); <관리 등을> 중앙 집권화하다 [본문으로]
120. log ; (-gg-), [vn] 1. 일지에 기록하다 [본문으로]
121. grassroots ; [형용사] 시골의(rural); 민중의, 서민의, 민중으로부터 나온 [본문으로]
122. undersoil heating ; Under-soil heating is a method used in various sports stadia (with a grass surface) which heats the underside of the pitch to avoid any elements from bad weather, such as snow and ice, from building up and ultimately helps the club avoid having to postpone any matches. [본문으로]
123. under the supervision of ; …의 감독하에 [본문으로]
124. unfeasible ; [형용사] 실행[달성]할 수 없는 ;; [ADJ] If you say that something is unfeasible, you mean that you do not think it can be done, made, or achieved. [본문으로]
125. pool ; 5. GROUP OF THINGS/PEOPLE | [C] ~ (of sth) 이용 가능 인력 [본문으로]
126. talent ; 2. [U , C] 재능[재주] 있는 사람[사람들] [본문으로]
127. tap ; 3. ~ (into) sth (기존의 에너지・지식 등을) 이용하다 ;; 3. <지식의 원천 등을> 열다; <토지·광산 등을> 개발하다; <한 지방에> 판로를 열다 [본문으로]
128. poach ; 3. (조류・동물・물고기를) 밀렵하다 ;; 미국식 [poʊtʃ] 영국식 [pəʊtʃ] [본문으로]
129. tap into ; 2. …을 활용[이용]하다 [본문으로]
130. the reigning champion ; 현 챔피언[선수권 보유자] [본문으로]
131. all but ; 2. ~외에 모두 [본문으로]
132. colonial power ; 식민국, 식민지를 가진 국가 [본문으로]
133. astute ; 날카로운, 기민한(keen, shrewd) ; 빈틈없는, 교활한, 약은(crafty). ;; 미국식 [ə|stu:t] 영국식 [ə|stju:t] [본문으로]
134. diaspora ; 2. 디아스포라(고국을 떠나는 사람・집단의 이동) ;; 미국∙영국 [daɪ|ӕspərə] [본문으로]
135. foreign-born ; [형용사] 외국 태생의 [본문으로]
136. gain independence (from) ; …으로부터 독립을 쟁취하다. [본문으로]
137. emigre ; [명사] (불어에서) (보통 정치적 이유에 의한) 망명자 ;; 미국·영국 [|emɪgreɪ] [본문으로]
138. export pipeline ; (에너지) 수송관 [본문으로]
139. self-perpetuating ; [형용사] 저절로 계속되는 ;; (임기가 지나도) 유임하는[할 수 있는]; 무제한 계속할 수 있는 [본문으로]
140. adept ; [형용사] ~ (at/in sth) | ~ (at/in doing sth) 능숙한 ;; 숙달한, (…에) 정통한(highly skilled, expert). [본문으로]
141. outperform ; [타동사] (기계 따위가) …보다 성능이 뛰어나다; (…에서) …보다 기량이 뛰어나다. [본문으로]
142. viewing figures ; 시청률 ; the number of people watching a television programme [본문으로]
143. revenue ; 3. [pl.] (국가·단체·개인 등의) 총수입, 총소득 [본문으로]
144. venture ; 1. [자동사][V + adv. / prep.] (위험을 무릅쓰고・모험하듯) 가다 [본문으로]
145. unfashionable ; [형용사] 인기가 없는, 유행에 어울리지 않는 [본문으로]
146. expertise ; [U] 1. 전문가적 의견, 전문적 지식[기술]. [본문으로]
147. flee ; [타동사] <사람·장소에서> 달아나다, 도망치다; 피신[피난]하다; <유혹을> 피하다; <나라 등을> 버리다 [본문으로]
148. well-trodden ; [형용사] (길 따위가) 잘 다져진, 사람이 많이 다니는. [본문으로]
149. circuit ; 1. 순환(로), 순회 (노선) [본문으로]
150. mediocre ; [형용사] (못마땅함) 보통 밖에 안 되는, 썩 좋지는 않은 ;; 미국식 [|mi:di|oʊkər] 영국식 [|mi:di|əʊkə(r)] [본문으로]
151. middle-income trap ; (국제경제∙무역) 중진국의 함정, 개발도상국이 중진국 단계에서 성장동력 부족으로 선진국으로 발전하지 못하고 경제성장이 둔화되거나 중진국에 머무르는 현상을 이름 [본문으로]
152. tactical ; [형용사] 1. [주로 명사 앞에 씀] (어떤 일을 달성하기 위한) 작전[전술]의 [본문으로]
153. fad ; 변덕; 일시적 유행; 일시적 열중, 유별난 취미; [영] (음식물 등에) 까다로움 [본문으로]
154. for starters ; 우선 첫째로[먼저] [본문으로]
155. courier ; 급사(急使); 여행의 시중꾼; (여행 회사의) 안내원; [Courier]「…일보」(신문의 이름) ;; 미국∙영국 [|kʊriə(r)] [본문으로]
156. avert ; [vn] 1. 방지하다, 피하다 [본문으로]
157. strike ; 1. OF WORKERS | 파업 ;; 참고 ; general strike, hunger strike [본문으로]
158. boycott ; [타동사][VN] (항의의 표시로) 구매[사용/참여]를 거부하다, 보이콧하다 [본문으로]
159. rouble ; [명사] 루블(러시아의 화폐 단위) ;; 미국·영국 [|ru:bl] [본문으로]
160. dressing room ; 1. (극장의) 분장실; (선수들의) 탈의실 ;; 2. (침실 옆에 딸린) 옷방 ;; 3. (美) 동의어 fitting room [본문으로]
161. clique ; [명사] (흔히 못마땅함) 파벌, 패거리 ;; (배타적인) 도당(徒黨)(coterie) ; 한 패, 파벌 ; 동업, 연합. ;; 미국∙영국 [kli:k] [본문으로]
162. fall to sb ; (임무·책임이) ~에게 떨어지다[~의 몫이 되다] [본문으로]
163. woeful ; 1. [주로 명사 앞에 씀] 통탄할, 한심한 ;; 2. (문예체 또는 격식) 몹시 슬픈, 비통한 [본문으로]
164. shoot-out ; 1. 총격전; [미] (군대간의) 분쟁 ;; 2. (경기 등의) 대접전; [미·구어] 언쟁, 논쟁 ;; 3. (축구) 승부차기 [본문으로]
165. rush ; 6. IN AMERICAN FOOTBALL | [자동사][V] (美) (공을 가지고) 돌진하다 [본문으로]
166. hasty ; (hasti・er , hasti・est), (참고: beat v.) 1. 서두른[성급한](특히 좋지 못한 결과를 초래함을 나타냄) ;; 2. ~ in doing sth (사람이) 성급한[경솔한] [본문으로]
167. work on ; (해결·개선하기 위해) ~에 애쓰다[공들이다] [본문으로]
168. slow down ; 느긋해지다; [속도·진행]을 늦추다; (기력이) 쇠해지다; 《미국》 (노동자가) 태업하다 [본문으로]
169. premeditated ; [형용사] 범행・나쁜 행동이 사전에 계획된, 계획적인 ;; 미국∙영국 [|pri:|medɪteɪtɪd] [본문으로]
170. bane ; [sing.] the ~ of sb/sth 골칫거리 ;; 파멸[재난, 불행]의 원인 ;; 미국∙영국 [beɪn] [본문으로]
171. meticulously ; [부사] 꼼꼼하게; 좀스럽게 [본문으로]
172. thwart ; [타동사][VN] [흔히 수동태로] ~ sth | ~ sb (in sth) (계획 등을) 좌절시키다 [본문으로]
173. rip up ; [VERB] to tear (paper) into small pieces [본문으로]
174. spectator ; 구경꾼, 관객, 관람자, 방관자(beholder, onlooker)(cf. audience). [본문으로]
175. randomness ; [명사] 닥치는 대로임, 임의. [본문으로]
176. a glimmer of hope ; 한 가닥의 희망 [본문으로]
177. underdog ; [보통 the únderdòg]패(배)자; (사회의) 낙오자, 「싸움에 진 개」; [보통 the únderdòg](사회 부정·박해 따위의) 희생자(↔top dog) [본문으로]
178. intoxicating ; (격식) 1. (음료가) 알코올이 든 ;; 2. 도취시키는, 취하게 만드는 [본문으로]